Photo-sharing community. Discover the world through photos.
Architecture in Jeddah
Jeddah in western Saudi Arabia, is the largest city in the Makkah Province and the second largest city in Saudi Arabia after Riyadh.
The city has a varied cityscape with architecture styles split between the Old City with it’s traditional multistories and merchant houses that are very typical of Saudi culture and the new modern developments.
The Old City is losing some ground to the new developments popping up all over the city but a lot of the good buildings are now heritage buildings and will be protected.
Tourism and Pilgrims have caused a huge jump in the number of hotels in Jeddah with hajj pilgrims increasing a lot recently and there are said to be about 2.5 million pilgrim visitors every year now. The picture above is of the Radisson Blu Hotel which is situated in the city’s business district and is a good example of the type of architecture being built in the city now.
Some other notable landmarks and buildings include the NCB Tower which was the highest tower in Saudi Arabia when it was first built in the mid 80’s. The Jeddah Municipality Tower is now one of the highest buildings and is the headquarters of the metropolitan area or Jeddah.
A building to look forward to is the Mile-High Tower that is being proposed by Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal and when it is completed it will be the tallest skyscraper in the world.
The city of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, is a superb tourist destination with many shopping districts, restaurants, cafes, museums and more. Here are some ideas of what to do on your travels there.
Souks and Markets
Jeddah is famous for its shopping excursions most typically found in the Balad district, where the city does boast some of the most exquisite shopping centres in the world. Retail paradises dripping in gold, encased in stone, cool caves of designer pleasure for the shoppaholics to indulge themselves. There are also the traditional souk markets, packed with stalls selling precious metals, spices and carpets. These markets are a noisy hubbub of activity and an exciting way to get your retail therapy.
This famous port city is more than just brightly coloured boutiques and designer labels. It has a long history stretching back in time and now visitors can discover the age-old participations Jeddah has made in the region. The Biet Nassif is an old family house from 1870 that has been converted into a museum, which explains the importance of the area and the cultural significance Jeddah has in the Islamic world.
Jeddah’s Beaches
The beaches of Jeddah are also an important feature for visitors and its location on the Red Sea gives tourists access to plenty of water sports and sea related entertainment. The Corniche Jeddah is the most famous of the waterfront areas and includes the King Fahd fountain, the world’s tallest water feature and an open-air art gallery. The Durrat Al-Arus, Bait Albahar and the Crystal Resort are some of Jeddahs other popular beaches.
Other points of interest for the Jeddah tourist are the:
Makkah Gate, this is one of the oldest gates in Saudi Arabia and takes pilgrims from Jeddah to the holy city of Mecca.
Municipality Museum is housed in the city’s only remaining building from the British Empires presence in Saudi Arabia and contains a precious collection of photographs, manuscripts and artefacts recording the country’s history.
Jeddah Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography was formally a palace that was built between 1928 and 1932. It now has a range of artefacts that date back to the Stone Age to the arrival of Islam. There is also a selection of treasures from when the building was used as a Royal residency and exhibitions of cultural importance from the region.
Abdul Raouf Khalil Museum is another exotic location with a marvellously decorated exterior that preserves the heritage and culture of Jeddah from its early roots of the Ottoman Empire to the modern commercial centre it has developed into today.
Due to its position on the pilgrim trail Jeddah attracts many people and even if you are not heading for Mecca or Messina there is still plenty for you to experience in the city itself. Warm all year around with lots to entertain the whole family and a chance to sample genuine Islamic culture, tastes and sounds.
Where to Stay
The Radisson Blu Royal Suite Hotel situated ten minutes from King Abdul Aziz International Airport, provides the ultimate in luxury and comfort whether you are travelling to a religious festival, shopping or on business.
The inside of the building is dripping with elegance, beautiful marble, rich fabrics and tasteful period furniture give the hotel a feeling of Islamic style and sophistication. Staying here is a delight with a varied tasty menu, environmentally controlled air-conditioning and gorgeous modern suites and rooms.
If you would prefer to stay more in the hustle bustle of Jeddah’s business district the Radisson Blu Jeddah Hotel offers he same amenities but in an ideal location for business travellers as well as those who want to stay in a more centrally located hotel.
The Radisson Blu hotel in Riyadh and it’s iconic Arabian architecture that features the stunning sand coloured twin buildings is a great feature across the Riyadh skyline. Saudi Arabia is known for...
Hotel Information
Radisson Blu Hotel, Riyadh
CLOSE
- Intriguing exhibitions at such nearby cultural attractions as Masmak Fortress, Murabba Palace and the National Museum captivate guests.
- This Riyadh hotel boasts 326 well-appointed rooms and suites, offering such exceptional amenities as satellite television, Free high-speed, wireless Internet access and mini bar.
- Savour an array of international cuisines at the hotel's on-site restaurants. Sample Japanese flavours at Shogun, Italian specialities at Olivio's, fusion creations at Brasserie on Four and gourmet coffee and snacks at Café Vienna.
- Stay in top form at the hotel's fitness centre, which features an outdoor swimming pool, sauna and spa facilities, including a barber shop.
- Spacious, well-equipped meeting rooms offer the latest technology and can be configured to accommodate 600 guests.
Introducing Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia. The world’s last great forbidden kingdom, and an emblem of everything most inexplicable to the West: the Middle East, Islam, oil and terrorism. For centuries the country was considered closed to outsiders, penetrable only to the bravest and the boldest, such as Richard Burton, TE Lawrence and Wilfred Thesiger, who risked life and limb to get there. Today it continues to exist only in the realms of the imagination for most people, who still relish the sensational stories surrounding it. And yet, ever so tentatively, the country is beginning to permit travellers past its portals. For those willing to ‘risk’ the realm, there may well be a surprise or two, like Madain Saleh & the North. Called Saudi Arabia’s Petra, Madain Saleh numbers among the most magical and monumental sites of the Middle East. Or it would if more people knew about it.
Advertisement
The Empty Quarter, the largest sea of sand on the planet, is home to dunes the size of ships. The Arabian oryx, one of the most beautiful animals on earth, also lives there. In the far south lies Najran, an ancient caravan stop, where mud-brick forts rise out of the palm plantations and oases. On the coast, liberal, libertine Jeddah – or so it’s seen by the Kingdom’s more conservative kinsmen – is home to sensation-full souqs and lovely coral houses, once the abode of its moneyed merchants. Off its shores lie Saudi’s Red Sea riches – reefs that rank among the least spoilt and most spectacular in the world.
Most memorable for many, however, is the traditional Bedouin hospitality that, like the sand of the Empty Quarter, seems to go on and on forever.
Last updated: Feb 17, 2009
Tips & articles
- article:aHR0cDovL3d3dy5sb25lbHlwbGFuZXQuY29tL3RyYXZlbC1ibG9nL3RpcC1hcnRpY2xlLz9wPTM1NDgz
16 March 2011
Want to get off the beaten path? Then here are 10 places that will stump most travel agents and reward...
- article:aHR0cDovL3d3dy5sb25lbHlwbGFuZXQuY29tL3RyYXZlbC1ibG9nL3RpcC1hcnRpY2xlLz9wPTI5MTM5
2 December 2010
This is an excerpt from Lonely Planet’s A Year of Festivals.Location: Al Jenadriyah, Saudi ArabiaDates:...
- article:aHR0cDovL3d3dy5sb25lbHlwbGFuZXQuY29tL3RyYXZlbC1ibG9nL3RpcC1hcnRpY2xlLz9wPTI1ODU0
26 October 2010
The Islamic world covers some of the greatest treasures of the natural world as well as some of the finest...
Thorn Tree forum discussion
Recent posts
by VinnyD 30 May 2012
It seems to have started in the US in the 80s. At any rate I had never heard about it before I went to Saudi Arabia, and it was de rigueur…
by Intraveller 29 May 2012
We are traveling for Umrah from U.S through Dubai via Emirates and traveling to India after the Umrah. So we are transiting through Dubai…by VinnyD 29 May 2012
I was never tempted to embrace either Libyan or Saudi culture. katcalls, Arabs not observing queues (e.g. In groceries) has nothing to…
From Wikitravel
Riyadh (الرياض ar-Riyāḍ) is the capital of Saudi Arabia, located slightly east of the center of the country in the heart of the Tuwaig escarpment.
[edit] Understand
Known by local wags as the Dead Center of the Kingdom, Riyadh is considered the most straight-laced of the Kingdom's big three cities. With most forms of entertainment banned, few sights of interest and a brutal climate, Riyadh is a business-only destination if there ever was one, but it's also the best place in the Kingdom to watch the continuing collision of tribal Wahhabi conservatism grappling with modern technology and Western influences.
[edit] History
Until the 16th century, Riyadh (or, more accurately, Ar-Riyadh) was known by the name Hajr, an important city of central Arabia dating from at least the 3rd century AD (and probably older). In the Middle Ages, Hajr served as the capital of the province of Al-Yamamah, whose viceroys presided over most of central and eastern Arabia.
With the decline in the fortunes and wealth of central Arabia after the 10th century, the name Al-Yamama gradually disappeared, and Hajr became subsumed under the name "Najd," which had previously referred only to areas lying further west. The name Hajr also gave way to the name "Ar-Riyadh" (meaning "the gardens"), as the old city broke into several towns and farming estates.
Only a hundred years ago, Riyadh was a dusty walled town of under 20,000 people surrounded by palm groves, fertile wadis, and a number of small villages. Riyadh (or, rather, the neighboring hamlet of Diriyah) is the ancestral home of the al-Sauds. Driven out by the Rashids in 1891, King Abdulaziz ibn Saud famously raided and recaptured the city in 1902. The city was made the capital of Saudi Arabia when the country was born in 1932, and has grown explosively ever since then — as of 2008, the city is estimated to have some 5,000,000 inhabitants, and is still growing fast.
[edit] Orientation
Riyadh is vast and sprawling. The main roads are King Fahd Rd (طريق الملك فهد tariq al-malek al-Fahd), which runs north to south across the city, and Makkah Rd (aka Khurais Rd), which runs west to east, intersecting at Cairo Square — which is actually just a cloverleaf interchange.
The modern business districts of Olaya (العليا, pron. Oleyah) and Suleimaniyah, containing most offices and better hotels, are to the north of Makkah Rd. Here Riyadh's two skyscrapers serve as handy orientation points: Faisaliah Tower (the pointy one) is towards the southern end of Olaya, while Kingdom Centre (the bottle opener) is at the northern end. Both are located between King Fahd Rd and the parallel thoroughfare of Olaya Rd, which is Riyadh's main upscale shopping strip.
The historical core of Riyadh is to the south of Makkah Rd. The district of al-Murabba hosts the sprawling grounds of the King Abdul Aziz Historical Park, home to the National Museum and the Murabba Palace, while a kilometer to the south is the dense warren of al-Bathaa, host to the city's cheapest food, lodging and shopping and the hub of the minibus network. Further south yet is Deira, centered on as-Sa'ah Square, which has souqs (traditional markets), the Masmak Fortress, the Governor's offices and, more morbidly, the execution grounds.
[edit] Climate
Located in the middle of the country, Riyadh suffers from the worst of Saudi Arabia's climatic extremes. Summer temperatures regularly exceed 50°C, while winter temperatures can fall below zero. It's bone dry throughout the year, and when the wind blows the city is often covered in a haze of sand. However, while summers are blazing hot, they are not humid, which goes some way to alleviate the pain. Summer evenings are generally tolerable and one even encounters the occasional cool breeze, especially on the outskirts of town.
Beware that in the last few years, the climate has been shifting in this part of the world as well. Temperatures near 50°C are usually only reached end of July and in August. In 2009, the temperature in Riyadh hit 48°C mid-June. Especially if you wear a business suit, it is imperative to stay out of the sun.
[edit] Get in
Riyadh is a long way from anywhere, so odds are fairly high you'll be arriving by plane.
[edit] By plane
Riyadh's King Khaled Airport (IATA: RUH) is located about 35 km north of the city. A large, architecturally striking structure in white and desert brown, hypermodern when opened in 1983, it has aged reasonably well but remains a famously boring place to get stuck in: just a small and very cramped shop in Terminal 2 and a few cafes including chains such as Starbucks and Costa as well as local outlets. Sit near (or, preferably, in) the Al-Fursan lounges to mooch off their free wifi.
There are three terminals in use, with Terminal 1 used by international carriers, Terminal 2 for Saudi Arabian Airlines international flights, and Terminal 3 for all domestic flights. The terminals are right next to each other and are connected at the arrivals level, so transfers involve lugging your stuff for a few hundred meters or, more sensibly, hiring a porter to do the job.
Aside from Saudia, direct connections from outside the Gulf and South Asia are surprisingly limited, but options includes Lufthansa from Frankfurt, British Airways and bmi from London-Heathrow, Air France from Paris, Turkish Airlines from Istanbul-Ataturk and Cathay Pacific from Hong Kong. The most international popular route, though, is via Dubai, from where there are at least half a dozen flights daily. Domestically, Riyadh is one of the main hubs and there are flights to every corner of the Kingdom, including near-hourly departures to Jeddah.
Unlike Jeddah, immigration and customs clearance at Riyadh is usually fairly straightforward (unless the computer system is down). Beware that standing in the wrong line for immigration may work out fine for you, or you may be catapulted back to the end of a different line when you hit the front position (making all that waiting worthless). The row for "Exit / Entry Visas" is only for resident expats that have left the country temporarily, to visit family for example.
You'll probably be accosted by touts as you soon as you exit customs, but just ignore them and head to the taxi ranks outside. While the official taxis are supposed to use a zone-based flat fare system, with most of central Riyadh in the SR 45 or 55 zones, the list of zones is available only in Arabic. A metered fare to the city should cost around SR 70-90, but more often than not the driver will just ask for a flat fare, which may even work out a little cheaper. If you've let yourself be scored by one of the private drivers (that are not only inside the terminal building but also outside), make sure the price you agreed on is truly agreed on, or your driver may tell you that he didn't agree to 80 Rial but rather 180, meaning you'll settle on 120. The better bet is taking an official taxi! A good alternative - if offered - is to take a hotel limousine. These are often not much more expensive than the taxi trip, but mostly high-quality, comfortable cars rather than run-down, creaky old clunkers with worn-through seats.
The trip to the city takes about 30 minutes in good traffic. Don't be irritated if the taxi is stopped at a control point by police (at which time the driver will put on his seatbelt and his mobile onto handsfree, two actions that are usually reversed as soon as the control point is passed).
When checking in, one airport quirk bears noting: you have to pass your bags through an X-ray before checking in, and after getting your boarding pass, you have go right through the same security gate in reverse to find immigration and departures. Don't go up the staircase — it's a dead end leading only to the viewing lounge.
[edit] By train
Riyadh's train station is approximately in the middle of the city, with four trains daily to Dammam via Al-Hofuf and Al-Hasa. Try to show up 30 minutes early, as you'll need to pass through security before boarding.
[edit] By bus
The Central Bus Terminal (tel. +966-1-2647858) is inconveniently located in the Aziziyah district some 17 km south of the city center; expect to pay at least SR30 for a taxi to get there. Buses from Dammam take a tolerable 4.5 hours, while it's a punishing 10-12 hour haul to Jeddah or Mecca with several stops on the way.
[edit] By car
The main East-West road through Riyadh is Highway 40 from Dammam and the causeway from Bahrain to Khobar with other road links mainly leading to the North of the Kingdom.
Most roads are tarmacked, albeit to varying levels of repair. Driving standards are slightly more sensible than those of the city centres, but caution is still needed. Some highways see heavy usage from lorries and petrol tankers, often in convoy.
[edit] Get around
Riyadh is very much a car-oriented city, and public transportation in Riyadh is badly underdeveloped. There are no street addresses as such in Riyadh, as mail is delivered to post office boxes, so getting around requires knowing landmarks near the place where you want to go.
If you are travelling by your own car then it is wise to carry a GPS system. Plan your route before start of journey. Although many streets, roads and landmarks are marked in both Arabic & English yet there are few important major streets, roads and exits that are still marked in Arabic only.
It is important to carry your Valid Identification (i.e. Passport / National ID / Iqama) at all the times. You may experience difficulties obtaining accommodation and may experience bigger problems if you are stopped at any of the city's check points (these can be both permanent or temporary). Not being able to show valid identification when asked by the police may land you in jail. Therefore, it is also advisable to keep details of your sponsor on hand in case you require assistance while out and about.
[edit] By taxi
Most visitors rely on white taxis, which are abundant in the city centre but can be harder to find on the outskirts or at night. Drivers will usually use the meter without asking if you do not propose a fixed price, and with a starting fare of SR 5 and the meter ticking up SR 1.60/km after the first kilometer, most metered trips within the city cost under SR 30. However, locals usually prefer to negotiate fares in advance, and this can often be cheaper than using the meter: short hops start at SR 10, a longer journey might be SR 15.
Single women are legally allowed to take registered public taxis, but many female visitors and expats choose not to, opting for transport provided by a hotel, their company or compound instead.
The level of English spoken varies from decent (esp. Indian and Pakistani drivers) to non-existent, so try to find out the name of your destination in Arabic before you head off. Solo male travelers are expected to hop into the front seat, next to the driver, while women must sit in the back.
Drivers are usually familiar with major local landmarks, but you're expected to know your way to your destination from there. Bring a map and the phone number of someone at your destination to call for directions.
[edit] By bus
Flat-fare minibuses (SR 3) rumble the streets of Riyadh, but these are mostly used by laborers. They are quite difficult for the casual visitor to use: there are no posted stops, and routes are usually written only in Arabic. Most routes converge on al-Bathaa, and the adventurous visitor can try his luck on route 9, which runs from al-Bathaa up Olaya Road.
[edit] By car
The best option for traveling in Riyadh is your own car, ideally driven by somebody else used to the conditions, but many expats take the plunge and drive themselves. The traffic in Riyadh is, by Saudi standards, fairly sane: ubiquitous raised bumps on lane markers keep cars traveling more or less in straight line, and radar-equipped cops on the major highways zap the craziest of speeders. Still, the local driving style can charitably be described as "aggressive", with swerving from the leftmost lane to the exit ramp on a four-lane highway being par for course, and central Riyadh jams up almost daily during rush hour.
Please be aware: It is illegal for women to drive.
[edit] On foot
The modern, northern half of Riyadh is very pedestrian-hostile, with 8-laned roads filled with speeding SUVs making crossing the road a dangerous exercise. Pedestrian bridges are very few and even at stoplights you need to keep an eye out for crazy drivers. Add in the fearsome summer heat, and it's little surprise that there aren't too many people walking about. In al-Bathaa, though, the situation is almost reversed: some of the alleys are too narrow or congested for cars, and walking is the only way of getting around.
But if you're the fearless type, walking along even the wider roads is a great way to see the city, as you'll be too distracted by constant near-misses while riding in a taxi. Stay in the shade, be careful along stretches without a pedestrian walkway (or one that is blocked off due to construction going on), and you'll be fine.
Sightseeing in Riyadh is a frustrating exercise in careful timing: not only are most sites closed on weekends (Thu-Fri) and during prayer hours, but visiting hours are segregated between men and families. The one saving grace is that many sites stay open until 9 PM.
[edit] Museums and historical sights
- Masmak Fortress (قصر المصمك Qasr al-Masmak), Deira. 8 AM-noon and 4-9 PM on Sat, Mon, Wed for men, Sun, Tue, Thu for families. The heart of old Riyadh, this was the fortress stormed by King Abdul Aziz and his men in their daring reconquest of Riyadh in 1902. Renovated in 2008 to an inch of its life, the mud brick structure now looks like it was built yesterday, but the museum inside does a pretty good job of recounting the story of the raid and has some fascinating photos of old Riyadh as well. Alas, the second half is devoted to extolling the greatness of the Sauds in everything from agriculture to education. Free. edit
- Murabba Palace (Qasr al-Murabba), (next to National Museum). 6-9 PM Sun-Fri. Riyadh's second old mud-brick palace, built by King Abdul Aziz after he conquered Masmak Fortress and figured he should built something harder to conquer. This two-story structure does indeed look pretty intimidating, but permits are no longer needed to venture inside, where you can find sights including the first royal Rolls-Royce. Free. edit
- National Museum. Open Su-Mo,We-Th 9-1 PM for men, 4:30-9 PM families; Tu 9-noon women only, 4:30-9 PM men; Fr 4:30-9 PM families; Sa closed. Undoubtedly the top sight in Riyadh, this museum (opened in 1999) is done up with the latest technology and is very accessible to visitors, with almost everything available in English. There are so many video presentations and mini-theatres that you could probably spend an entire day here doing virtual tours of Madain Salih or watching re-enactments of the Prophet Mohammed's battle of Medina. Highlights include a kiswah cloth that once covered the Qaaba in Mecca. Half the time, though, it feels more like a propaganda exercise than a museum: the display on plate tectonics starts with a quote from the Quran, the history of the Sauds is rather airbrushed, and the display on the birth of Mohammed, reached from the clash and noise of the Jahiliyah (age of ignorance) by riding an escalator up into a room of soothing, pastel light while a choir of angels sings, has probably inspired a few conversions to Islam. Note: Many cabbies will not recognize the English name, ask for the neighboring Murabba Palace (Qasr al-Murabba) instead. SAR10. edit
Thinking of going to see a beheading?
"You don't want to see one," an older friend of mine named Fred told me a short time later.
"Why not?"
"Believe me, you're going to see enough ugly stuff by the time you're my age without having to carry around the memory of a beheading the rest of your life," Fred said. "You think it won't bother you, but it's a hard thing to see. Harder to forget. Wish I never went."
--Victor Hanson, Letter #11 from Saudi Arabia
- As-Sufaat (Deira Square). Next to the Great Mosque and the mutawwa headquarters, this nondescript expanse of cement is known by expats as Chop-Chop Square as convicts are publicly beheaded by sword here. Executions take place on Friday mornings (but not every week), just after the noon prayers. Beware that any Westerners nearby have been known to be taken to the front row and forced to watch the whole thing, in order to further shame the condemned. edit
- Kingdom Centre (المملكة Al-Mamlaka), [1]. Daily 4-11 PM. Undoubtedly Riyadh's most stunning piece of modern architecture, at 305m the Kingdom Centre is the second tallest building in Saudi Arabia and quite a sight, especially when lit up at night. The centre hosts an (expensive) three-story shopping mall, with one floor reserved for women, but the main reason to visit is the 99th-floor Skybridge connecting the two peaks at a height of 300m. Best visited at dusk or after dark, from here you'll get great views over the vast and flat but well-lit expanse of the city. SR35 (Skybridge). edit
[edit] Wadi Hanifa
A dry and sharply defined riverbed (wadi) begins about 40 km north of Riyadh and runs in a north-south direction for over 120 km's, cutting through the western edge of the city, known as Wadi Hanifah. Wadi Hanifah was once the lifeblood of the Riyadh area, rich in groundwater, filled with palm groves and farms and dotted with a string of small towns and villages throughout history. In recent decades, the Wadi has been used as a large dumping ground for wastewater, sewage, and industrial waste, but a recent ambitious rehabilitation project has just been completed. An 80 km stretch running through western Riyadh is now essentially an 80-km desert park, though many parts of the Wadi floor are occupied by private estates and farms with high walls. The Wadi has several entry points, but perhaps the easiest route is by taking King Abdullah Road west past the university and into the town of Arqah. Eventually, you will reach a large round-about. Take the exit heading downwards into the Wadi. Follow the road even as it winds and weaves its way through the Wadi (do not be tempted to turn onto any side streets). Eventually, you will reach a police checkpoint, to the left of which is an an entry point to the Wadi floor. A narrow paved road runs along the Wadi floor. Heading southwards, you will eventually find designated picnic and barbecue spots facing the Wadi's cliff-like walls.
While dry for most of the year, wadis can flood very quickly with a moderate amount of rain. Never approach a wadi during the rain or even its immediate aftermath. Even looking over the edge of a wadi can be dangerous as the Wadi's edges can break off during the rain. Every year, several deaths are reported from flash floods all across Saudi Arabia.
[edit] Al-Dir'iyyah
Located on a hill overlooking Wadi Hanifa, Al-Dir'iyyah, on the northwestern outskirts of Riyadh, is the ancestral home of the Saudi royal family and served as the Saudi capital until 1818. The ruins of the old city are currently being restored and renovated and are thus closed off for tourists, but the surrounding area can still be worth the visit in the meantime.
Although few Saudis play golf, there are surprisingly good golf courses around. The best one is the 18-holes course in Dirab Golf & Contry club a good 30 minutes drive west of Riyadh. Nice layout with green and inviting grass, and the last 9 holes are even floodlit. They offer tennis, swimming and horse-back riding as well. There's also a quite nice 9-holes short range course connected to the Hotel Intercontinental almost in the dead centre of the city. Nice but short - also floodlit. If you travel about 20 minutes to the north-east you will find a not so nice desert course with browns instead of greens (the putting area consist of sand/oil mixture instead of grass).
Head west down the Makkah Road for 30 minutes, and you'll reach the edge of the Tuwaig Escarpment. As you make the 200 meter sharp drop from the Tuwaig escarpment to Najd-proper, you will get a good feel of the desert with dunes and buttresses.
Heading northeast of the airport to the Thumama sand dunes, one can engage in "dune bashing" in 4x4 SUV's or in rented ATV's.
Saudi Arabia is football-mad country, and big matches at the King Fahad Stadium can attract crowds of 50-70 thousand, creating an electric atmosphere. However, note that football stadiums are off limits to women.
[edit] Shopping malls
Riyadh's main roads are nothing but one shopping mall after another.
- Al Faisaliah, Olaya Rd. At the foot of the Al Faisaliah skyscraper, this is one of Riyadh's swankiest malls, anchored by a Harvey Nichols department store. The food court on the third floor is among the best in the Kingdom; the one in the basement, on the other hand, is deserted. There is a fun park in the basement near the entrance on Olaya road. Families only Wed-Fri. edit
- Al Mamlaka, Olaya Rd (Kingdom Centre), [2]. One of the swankiest malls in the Kingdom, with the third floor Ladies Kingdom reserved exclusively for women. Good food court on the lower level and even a Planet Hollywood restaurant. edit
- Jarir Bookstore (Makatba Jarir), Olaya Rd (south of Musa ibn Nosayr St), [3]. The two-level flagship store of Saudi Arabia's largest bookstore, most of the store is actually taken up by a wide range of computer gear, stationary, music and DVDs. The best English-language magazine and book selection in Saudi — which, alas, isn't saying all that much. edit
- Sahara Mall, Intersection of King Abdul Aziz Rd and Prince Abdullah Bin Abdul Aziz Rd, [4]. Enormous mall on the northern side of the city. The mall has 180 shops anchored by a Tamimi supermarket and features what may be the largest food court in the city — and if you can't find what you want here, the adjacent Sahara Plaza annex has more. edit
- Localizer Mall, Tahlia St, [5]. A great place to visit if you are in Tahlia. They have wide range of clothing store as well as fine dining restaurant such as Outback. edit
Granada Mall, near Airport has carrefour, H&M and Sun and SAnds
Panorama mall on Tahlia street.
[edit] Traditional markets (souqs)
- Souq al-Thumairi (شارع الثميري), Deira (next to Masmak Fortress). Also known as Antique Souq, this is Riyadh's most touristy souq, which isn't saying all that much. It specializes in Arabic goods cheap and expensive, authentic and fake, with carpets, coffee pots, daggers, jewelry and more. English is generally spoken, and haggling is obligatory. edit
Eating out is one of the few pleasures of Riyadh — there's a pretty good selection of restaurants for various cuisines, ranging from cheap and hearty to fancy and expensive.
[edit] Budget
Your best bet for cheap, filling meals are Riyadh's countless small Pakistani/Indian restaurants, which can fill you up with curry and rice for about SR11.
Fast food places abound in Riyadh's shopping malls, with a full meal with drink averaging around SR20. If you want something other than the usual hamburgers and kebabs, Pizza Hut offers a pretty good salad buffet.
- Al Fawar, Olaya St (across the road and one block south from al-Faisaliah), ☎ +966-1-4657776. Cheap and cheerful Lebanese eatery offering tasty shwarma, kebabs, dips and more. Shwarma SR3/6. edit
- Al-Malaz Restaurant, off Olaya Rd (behind Holiday Inn al-Qasr). No-frills, somewhat fly-blown South Indian eatery that's always packed thanks to tasty food, low prices and generous portions. At lunchtime, you can get four curries (meat or veg), pickles, fresh veggies, rice, chapattis, pappadums, dessert and tea, all with infinite refills, for the scarcely credible price of SR6. edit
- Mama Noura Juice Center, Prince Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz St, Al-Rahmaniyah (and three other franchises), ☎ +966-1-4708881, [6]. Immensely popular chain which does excellent thick, fresh juice cocktails as well, but the main draw here is the famous shwarma, arguably Riyadh's best. They're minuscule in size but cheap at SR4 a pop, so most people order at least three! The menu (available in English) also covers freshly baked pastries, kebabs and some Lebanese treats. Place your order and pay first, then queue at the counters. You can eat in at the diner-style high counters among towering piles of fruit, but most opt for take-away. Under SR10. edit
- Paragon Family Restaurant, Batha (Opp Suncity Supermarket), ☎ 4083852 (riyadhparagon@yahoo.co.in), [7]. 5am-2am. Providing traditional Malabar cuisine, North-Indian and Chinese. Paragon specials are biriyani, kudukka biriyani (served in a pot) and traditional style fish items. edit
- Shayah, Kingdom Centre B1F Food Court, [8]. Iranian restaurant offering a good range of kebabs and a better range of mezze like tabbouleh, hummus, eggplant, vine leaves etc. Single portions under SR10, huge set meals SR21. edit
- Ya Mal Asham, Olaya Rd (off Musa ibn Nosayr St, next to Jarir Bookstore). All the ambience of a giant school cafeteria, but there's a great selection of Arabic food from shwarma to soups, grills, stews and desserts and the "take a tray and point" style of ordering makes it easy to choose (although they do have an English menu as well). Shwarma SR4, full meals SR15-20. edit
[edit] Mid-range
- Cafe Amore, Tahlia St. (Heading east on Tahlia with the Olaya intersection behind you, the restaurant will appear among a row of restaurants on your left. Take the next u-turn.). Probably the best, slickest and most professionally-run Italian restaurant in Riyadh. SR30. edit
- Najd Village, Takhassusi St. (On Takhassusi about 500 meters southeast of Euromarche.). Probably the restaurant with the nicest decor in Riyadh, traditional saudi food, you will be sitting on a the floor." SR75. edit
- Abdulwahab, Tahlia St. (Heading east on Tahlia with the Olaya intersection behind you, the restaurant will appear on your right.). Modeled after a restaurant in Beirut of the same name, this restaurant has quickly become one of the most popular and reputable Lebanese restaurants in town. SR30. edit
- Burj Al-Hamaam, Takhassusi St. (On Takhassusi opposite to Takhassusi Hospital.). One of the older Lebanese restaurants in town, this sparsely-decorated restaurant has had an enduring reputation. It is especially known for its "Sayyadiyya" and its "Kibbe in pomegranate sauce." SR30. edit
- Tokyo, Oruba St. (At the eastern end of Oruba St.). This is an oldest Japanese restaurant in town (dating from the 80's). It is said to be run by Japanese and to serve excellent Sushi. Closed on Fridays. SR30. edit
- Assaraya, Talatheen St, ☎ +966 1 464 9336. This very popular Turkish restaurant is packed during the evening hours. Meat is the name of the game here, and it comes in numerous tasty variations. The bread is superb! SR30. edit
- Chilis, Tahlia Street. Quite good rendition of TexMex with a typical American look-and-feel. If you're from the Northeast of the US, the Buffalo Wings / Tenders are recommended - excellent hotsauce. SR60. edit
- Korean Palace, Makkah Rd (opp Holiday Inn al-Qasr), ☎ +966-1-4631102. Korean-run eatery offering reasonably authentic Korean, Japanese, and Chinese food at reasonable prices. Popular with the local Asian community. SR50. edit
- Mirage Restaurant, Al-Takhassosi Rd, North West Riyadh (west of Kingdom Tower), ☎ +966-1-4834127. Taiwanese-Saudi run Chinese restaurant offering a variety of foods from throughout Asia, stick to the Taiwanese or Chinese menu items. The pigeon is a great appetizer as an alternative to the deep fried appetizer menu. The restaurant is accepting of business mixed gender groups. Ask for a table on top of the illuminated fish tanks in the center of the restaurant. Getting there can be difficult as it is in a side strip mall, look for the pagoda top and the neon Chinese gate. SAR80. edit
- Duo, North Ring Rd. (directions). Chain Italian restaurant that caters to families. The selection is decent, but quality is lacking. If you go, try the Spaghetti Curry dish - fried chicken, peas, pineapple curry pasta - sounds weird, but tastes good. If going as a bachelor group (all males), the room is off to the side with limited service. SAR60. edit
- Steak House, North Ring Rd. (directions). Basic chain steak house - think Ponderosa - with a decent selection of steaks and other meat products. One of many locations throughout Riyadh. SAR60. edit
- Teatro, between Olaya and King Fahad Rd. next to Pizza Hut on Olaya (directions). Teatro is an amazing find in the small area between Olaya and Kind Fahad Road. The bachelor side (the only side visited this trip) looks like a very odd dance club. We were escorted to the "VIP room" and were not told about the extra SAR 30 charge per person. Although this was disappointing, the area is a mix of 1960's mood lighting, lava lamps, odd kitsch, and a hunter's room with hunted animals every where. Add in Pink Floyd's "The Wall" (a bit of irony for the Kingdom) and a few huge screen TVs - the place is a den for sports fans in Riyadh. We were told the place sells out on football nights. The food was international in style and average. The pizza had too much cheese. Overall the food was average, but the decor and oddity of finding a place like this in Riyadh will entice a return visit during a football match. There is a family side that looks just as interesting. SAR 60/SAR 90 VIP. edit
- Avadh, on Tahlia across the street from Outback Steakhouse (go West on Tahlia from Olaya until you see Avadh on the left, across the street from Outback Steakhouse). Avadh is a traditional north Indian restaurant on the Tahlia strip (western style shops/restaurants). The family section is quite nice. The food is traditional, authentic, and expensive in comparison to other Indian restaurants. The naan and roti are fresh. The lamb "dum style" was the best dish of those ordered. SAR 120/person. edit
- Taste Of India, Batha Main Str (Near 2nd Cross Bridge, just behind the Mist multi-shop.), ☎ 4091333/0505923330, [9]. regular. Indian (North and South) food at reasonable rates. The settings are nice and clean, dishes range from delicious biryanis and tandoors to south Indian rice specialties. 10-40 SAR. edit
[edit] Splurge
- Mondo, Intercontinental Hotel 7F (across King Fahad Road from the Ministry of Interior). Probably the most expensive and highest quality restaurant in Riyadh, with varied, international cuisine. SR100-300 per person, not including taxes, service or drinks. edit
- Al-Nakheel, Khozama Centre 7F (next to Al-Khozama Hotel). Dubbed no less than the best restaurant in Saudi by a certain well-known travel guide, one can only presume that either standards in Riyadh have skyrocketed or this place has gone into terminal decline. With decor unchanged since the 1970s and an uninspired buffet (no a la carte menu) of the usual Arabic standbys, the only visitors seem to be tour groups and hotel guests -- the locals know you can get better stuff for a fraction of the price elsewhere. Dinner buffet SR110, not including taxes, service or drinks. edit
- Sheraton Riyadh offers a very rich buffet for breakfast, covering a wide spectrum of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern delicacies, as well as regular European food. The Italian restaurant in the ground floor of Sheraton Riyadh is excellent. The pasta with its freshly prepared sauce is recommended.
- Spazio: located at the top floor of Kingdom Center, this restaurant is nominally Italian but in fact serves a varied international cuisine. Despite the view and cost, the food is not especially impressive.
- Fairuz Garden: Excellent Lebanese restaurant with outdoor seating. Driving north on King Fahd road, just a few blocks from Kindgom Tower, you will see it on your right. The setting is lovely and food is delicious.
With alcohol, cinema and nightclubs all banned, Riyadh's nightlife is infamously nonexistent. Even that mainstay of the Arab street, shisha (water pipe) cafes, are banned from the center of town — although they can be found just outside city limits at Thumamah St, about 10km away from the center off the road to the airport. Ask a local (or any taxi driver) for his favorite. What's left, then, are coffeeshops, which can be found in abundance throughout the city, particularly on Tahlia St (officially Prince Mohammed Bin Abdul Aziz St) in Olaya.
For the foreign workers - the expats - the social life can be quite (well, comparatively) rich however. There are always a good party going on in the embassy area or in one of the compounds. And at these private parties there's always a chance to find some illegal booze.
In case you run into it, especially within expat communities, Saudi champagne refers to a non-alcoholic drink, typically a mix of Sprite and apple cider.
- The Globe, Al-Faisaliah (entry via South Lobby), ☎ +966-1-2732000, [10]. Suspended 240 meters above Riyadh in the giant glass ball of the al-Faisaliah building, the Globe is the hippest cafe-restaurant and probably the single best splurge in town. So dimly lit at night that the waiters fade into the shadows, you can settle back in a plush leather seat, order a bottle of (non-alcoholic) bubbly, puff on a Cohiba and watch the lights of the city twinkle below. Reservations required, but they'll make one for you at the lobby if there's space. On the way out, stop at "the experience" level outdoor viewing platform. Day SR100, night SR170 minimum charge, dinner SR175. edit
- Scoler Express, Khozama Center, ☎ +96614622780. One of half a dozen cafes in the alley between al-Faisaliah and the Khozama Hotel, this is the only one that's not an obvious chain outlet. The menu has a good range of drinks hot, cold, caffeinated and juicy, including espressos made with fancy Tonino Lamborghini gear, and the outdoor seating is cooled down with a nifty water spraying system. SR10. edit
This guide uses the following price ranges for a standard double room: Budget Under SR200 Mid-range SR200-500 Splurge Over SR500 [edit] Budget
Most of Riyadh's budget accommodation is in al-Batha. It is advised that you should check the room condition and proper functioning of all equipment (e.g. TAP/FLUSH/TV/Power Outlets etc.)in budget hotel prior to check in.
- Al Jazeera Hotel, Al Bathaa Street, +966 1 2863863. Good value hotel on main street, offering singles/doubles from SR60/120. Behind this hotel there is multistory building (Nesto Hypermarket) for shopping and car parking SR5/24Hrs. (Note: Pay Parking Fee in advance & get receipt for desired number of days otherwise there may be fine of SR50. Keep the Parking fee receipt safe untill last day as you need to show it everytime you exit from parking. You can enter and exit parking as many times you wish within the validity of receipt).
- Al Batraa, Al-Dai'ri Ring Road, +966 1 248 4310. Furnished, clean apartments in the Al-Quds district.
[edit] Mid-range
- Almuthana, King Fahd Rd (between Tahlia St and Faisaliah), ☎ +966-1-2931230, [11]. Modern, stylish hotel offering four-star quality at reasonable price compared to its branded equivalents, but service is rather inept. Free (but not tremendously fast) wireless internet, small indoor pool and limited gym (open only in the evening). Cafe on mezzanine for buffet breakfast is relaxed, 8th floor restaurant dinner buffet expensive at SR120 but tasty.sleep> * White Palace (Al-Qasr Al-Abiyad), King Abdul Aziz Street, ☎ +966 1 478 7800. Pleasant hotel in the Al-Dubat district, with character and a total of 135 rooms, all furnished with a TV and ensuite bathrooms. Singles/doubles SR160/200. edit edit
[edit] Splurge
At the upper end, hotel prices in Riyadh have increased rapidly in the past few years and are now almost as expensive as Dubai. Expect to pay north of SR600.
- Al Faisaliah Hotel, A Rosewood Hotel, King Fahd Rd, ☎ +966-1-2732000, [12]. Luxury hotel offering facilities for meetings, conferences, weddings and events. Also provides accommodations, restaurants and vacation packages for tourists as well as business travelers. SR 1,400. edit
- Al Khozama, Olaya Rd, ☎ +966-1-4654650, [13]. Once among Riyadh's top hotels, but now getting a bit long in the tooth. Somewhat cramped but clean rooms. The location right next to al-Faisaliah is excellent though. The pool right by the hotel is outdoor only and not as clean as you'd hope for, but hotel guests can use the fitness center in the next building (Khozama Center, 1st floor) which offers a superb gym, a large indoor pool, tennis and bowling. Free internet in the business rooms (5th floor). SR800. edit
- Four Seasons Riyadh, Kingdom Tower, King Fahd Rd, ☎ +966 1 211 5000, [14]. It doesn't get any cooler than staying in the 302-meter Kingdom Tower itself, and the Four Seasons features what you expect from a luxury hotel. Singles from SR1200, doubles from SR1400. edit
- Holiday Inn Al-Qasr, Olaya Main Rd, ☎ +966-1-4625000, [15]. Formerly the Howard Johnson Olaya Palace, but thoroughly renovated and reopened in 2007. Modern design, decent rooms, central location, basic gym. Internet SR100/day, breakfast buffet SR105. Rooms from SR550. edit
- Intercontinental Hotel, ☎ +966 1 465 5000. Popular hotel for visiting businessmen. Large meeting facilities, good restaurants, close to Olaya Road business district. edit
- Luthan Spa and Hotel, Aruba Rd (Near King Khalid Eye Hospital), ☎ +966-1-4807799, [16]. The first and only women-only hotel in Saudi. Most visitors are locals coming here for the spa, but there are also 25 rooms for overnight visitors. SR350-979. edit
- Marriott Riyadh, ☎ +966-1-4779300, [17]. In desperate need of a facelift and awkwardly located to the east of the city core. About the best that can be said is that it's clean and quiet. Once you're in the room, you can easily imagine you're in any Marriott in the US, even the bathrooms look identical. Superb, large-size indoor swimming pool and excellent fitness room (included in room charge). SR1000. edit
- Radisson Blu Riyadh, King Abdulaziz St, ☎ +966-1-4791234, [18]. Very comfortable modern hotel with a Scandinavian touch. Nice gym with two saunas and pools, free Internet and a rather good breakfast. Has four in-house restaurants including a Japanese and an Italian one. SR800. edit
- Sheraton Hotel, King Fahd Rd, ☎ +966-1-4543300, [19]. checkin: 3 PM; checkout: noon. Older but well-maintained property about 3 km north of the city center, handy for both the airport and doing business. Good restaurants, but virtually nothing within walking distance. SR900. edit
[edit] Contact
Internet cafes can be found in the computer souq in Olaya. Riyadh is also pushing forward with its "Smart City" program, which will attempt to provide wireless access throughout the city in the major coffeeshops and hotels, particularly on Tahlia St in the downtown area.
[edit] Stay safe
Riyadh is more conservative than Jeddah or the Eastern Province. The mutaween (religious police) are numerous in Riyadh and not to be messed with. Women must cover themselves with an abaya (available in shops everywhere in Riyadh) and it's advisable to carry a headscarf as well. Read, understand and follow the guidelines in the Saudi Arabia article to stay out of trouble.
In 2002-2004, Riyadh was the site of numerous terrorist attacks on Westerners, including shootings, car bombings and kidnappings, culminating in the May 12, 2003 compound bombings that killed 35 and injured over 160. In response, Saudi security forces cracked down brutally, and there have been no terrorist attacks in Riyadh since 2004. Security remains very tight though, particularly at housing compounds for foreigners, and police and army units, often heavily armed, are a common sight in the city.
Although Riyadh is sometimes alleged to have one of the lowest crime rates in world, standard precautions should be taken. The most significant danger to you is driving. Most drivers originate from areas in developing countries and the Middle East which lack traffic laws, driving schools, or even roads for that matter. It's a 'driving culture' where seat belts, mirrors, lane stripes, turn signals and speed limits are ignored. A four-lane highway can easily transform into a seven-lane 'racetrack'. Don't be shy with your horn.
Riyadh can be a challenging destination to live and work in. Some tips for easier adaptation:
- Arrange a car and driver, or at least arrange a regular cabbie. This is easier, safer and quite possibly cheaper than relying on taxis for transport.
- Organize your day around prayer times, with late lunches (after noon prayers) and very late dinners (after evening prayers).
- Socializing with the family-oriented Saudis is virtually impossible, so get in touch with the local expat community if you want to have any semblance of a social life.
- Try to get out of Riyadh on the weekends, when virtually everything is closed or inaccessible to single males.
- Respect Islam and abide by the country's strict Islamic laws. Although rare, there are cases of Westerners arrested, deported and receiving corporal punishment for showing signs of disrespect. Expect no leniency if you are Muslim, South Asian or Southeast Asian. Riyadh is one of the strictest cities in Saudi Arabia.
[edit] Embassies
[edit] Get out
If your budget stretches to flights, Saudi Arabia is your oyster, with the entire country within a 1.5-hour radius of Riyadh.
- Jeddah — the largest port on the Red Sea and the gateway to Mecca and Medina, but with good scuba diving too
- Bahrain — if you have a car, the 4-hour drive through the desert to the comparatively liberal state of Bahrain is not too bad
- Dubai — The new luxurious party city of the Middle East. If you have a car, it will be a 7-hour drive east through the desert. For cheap flights, approximately 1.5 hours, take a low-cost airline into Sharjah.
This is a guide article. It has a variety of good, quality information including hotels, restaurants, attractions, arrival and departure info. Plunge forward and help us make it a star!
Views
Navigation
other sites
Saudi Arabiasä
´d
r
´b
Land
The south and southeast of the country are occupied entirely by the great Rub al-Khali desert. Through the desert run largely undefined boundaries with Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. In addition to the Rub al-Khali, Saudi Arabia has four major regions. The largest is the Nejd, a central plateau, which rises from c.2,000 ft (610 m) in the east to c.5,000 ft (1,520 m) in the west. Riyadh is located in the Nejd. The Hejaz stretches along the Red Sea from the Gulf of Aqaba south to Asir and is the site of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Asir, extending south to the Yemen border, has a fertile coastal plain. Inland mountains in the Asir region rise to more than 9,000 ft (2,743 m). The Eastern Province extends along the Persian Gulf and is the oil region of the country. The oasis of Al-Hasa, located there, is probably the country's largest. Saudi Arabia's climate is generally hot and dry, although nights are cool, and frosts occur in winter. The humidity along the coasts is high.
People
The population of Saudi Arabia is 90% Muslim Arab of the Wahhabi sect (a branch of Sunni Islam), although there is a small percentage of Shiites, mainly in the northeast. Islam is the only officially recognized religion, and other faiths are not publicly tolerated. A large proportion of the population are farmers in the Hejaz. Nomads and seminomads raise camels, sheep, goats, and horses. The large number of foreigners living in Saudi Arabia work in the oil industry, as computer technicians and consultants, and as construction and domestic workers. Arabic is spoken by almost everyone. In 1957 a university was opened at Riyadh; other universities are at Dhahran, Dammam, Jedda, and Makka.
Economy
Because of the scarcity of water, agriculture had been restricted to Asir and to oases strung along the wadis, but irrigation projects have reclaimed many acres of desert, particularly at Al Kharj, southeast of Riyadh, and Hofuf, in the eastern part of the country. Riyadh's desalinized water supply comes from a pipeline on the Persian Gulf. Products grown in Saudi Arabia include wheat, barley, dates, citrus fruit, vegetables, and livestock products. Agriculture is a growing economic sector, and the country is approaching food self-sufficiency. Manufacturing, which has also increased, produces metals, chemicals, plastics, pharmaceuticals, cement, and fertilizers. Minerals include phosphate, iron ore, copper, gold, bauxite, and uranium. Saudi Arabia has a growing banking and financial-services sector, and the country is beginning to encourage tourism, especially along the Red Sea coast. Mecca, Medina, and the port of Jidda have derived much income from religious pilgrims; the annual hajj brings about 2 million pilgrims to Mecca.
The oil industry, located in the northeast along the Persian Gulf, dominates the economy, comprising 90% of all Saudi exports. Major trading partners are the United States, Japan, Great Britain and other European Union countries, South Korea, and Singapore. Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia in 1936, and the country is now the world's leading exporter. It contains about one quarter of the world's known reserves; 14 major oil fields exist. A huge petroleum industrial complex has been developed in the town of Al Jubayl, as well as at Yanbu on the Red Sea. There are refinery complexes at Ras Tanura and Ras Hafji on the Persian Gulf; oil also is shipped to Bahrain for refining. The oil boom after World War II led to the construction of the Al Dammam–Riyadh RR, the development of Al Dammam as a deepwater port, and the electrification of the towns. Schools, hospitals, and homes, particularly for the oil workers, have been built. Saudi Arabia, like other oil-rich Persian Gulf countries, depends heavily upon foreign labor for its oil industry; workers are drawn from Arab countries as well as S and SE Asia. The country began running annual deficits in the mid-1980s as oil prices declined and the government continued to spend heavily on armaments and social programs. Saudi Arabia entered a recession in the late 1990s and was forced to initiate spending cuts.
History
Origins of Saudi Arabia
As a political unit, Saudi Arabia is of relatively recent creation. Its origins lay with the puritanical Wahhabi movement (18th cent.), which gained the allegiance of the powerful Saud family of the Nejd, in central Arabia. Supported by a large Bedouin following, the Sauds brought most of the peninsula under their control, except for Yemen and the Hadhramaut in the extreme south. The Wahhabi movement was crushed (1811–18) by an Egyptian expedition under the sons of Muhammad Ali. After reviving in the mid-19th cent., the Wahhabis were defeated in 1891 by the Rashid dynasty, which gained effective control of central Arabia.
It was Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud, known as Ibn Saud, a descendant of the first Wahhabi rulers, who laid the basis of the present Saudi Arabian state. Beginning the Wahhabi reconquest at the turn of the century, Ibn Saud took Riyadh in 1902 and was master of the Nejd by 1906. On the eve of World War I he conquered the Al-Hasa region from the Ottoman Turks and soon extended his control over other areas. He was then ready for the conquest of the Hejaz, ruled since 1916 by Husayn ibn Ali of Mecca. The Hejaz fell to Saud in 1924–25 and in 1932 was combined with the Nejd to form the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, an absolute monarchy, ruled under Islamic law. In much of the country, King Ibn Saud compelled the Bedouins to abandon traditional ways and encouraged their settlement as farmers.
Development of the Modern State
Oil was discovered in 1936 by the U.S.-owned Arabian Standard Oil Company, which later became the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco). Commercial production began in 1938. Saudi Arabia is a charter member of the United Nations. It joined the Arab League in 1945, but it played only a minor role in the Arab wars with Israel in 1948, 1967, and 1973. An agreement with the United States in 1951 provided for an American air base at Dhahran, which was maintained until 1962. Ibn Saud died in 1953 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Saud, who soon came to rely on his brother, Crown Prince Faisal (Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud), to administer financial and foreign affairs.
King Saud at first supported the Nasser regime in Egypt, but in 1956, in opposition to Nasser, he entered into close relations with the Hashemite rulers of Jordan and Iraq, until then the traditional enemies of the Saudis. He opposed the union in 1958 of Egypt and Syria as the United Arab Republic and became a bitter foe of Nasser's pan-Arabism and reform program. When, in Sept., 1962, pro-Nasser revolutionaries in neighboring Yemen deposed the new imam and declared a republic, King Saud, together with King Hussein of Jordan, dispatched aid to the royalist troops. The Saudi family deposed Saud, and Prince Faisal became king in Nov., 1964.
Relations with Egypt were severed in 1962, but after the defeat of Egypt by Israel in June, 1967, an agreement was concluded between King Faisal and President Nasser. According to the agreement, the Egyptian army was to withdraw from Yemen and Saudi Arabia was to cease aiding the Yemeni royalists. By 1970, Saudi Arabia had withdrawn all its troops, and relations with Yemen were resumed. Saudi Arabia also agreed to give $140 million a year to Egypt and Jordan, which had been devastated in the 1967 war with Israel. In view of Britain's withdrawal from the Persian Gulf area, King Faisal pursued a policy of friendship with Iran, while encouraging the Arab sheikhdoms that had been under British rule to form the United Arab Emirates. King Faisal, however, maintained claims to the Buraimi oases, which were also claimed by the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi.
In 1972 the government of Saudi Arabia demanded tighter rein on its oil industry as well as participation in the oil concessions of foreign companies. Aramco (a conglomerate of several American oil companies) and the government reached an agreement in June, 1974, whereby the Saudis would take a 60% majority ownership of the company's concessions and assets. The concept of participation was developed by the Saudi Arabian government as an alternative to nationalization. King Faisal played an active role in organizing the Arab oil embargo of 1973, directed against the United States and other nations that supported Israel; as U.S. oil prices soared, Saudi revenues increased. Relations with the United States improved with the signing (1974) of cease-fire agreements between Israel and Egypt and Israel and Syria (both mediated by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger) and by the visit (June, 1974) of President Richard M. Nixon to Jidda.
Contemporary Saudi Arabia
As a result of Saudi Arabia's increased wealth, its quest for stability, and its improved relations with Western nations, the country began an extensive military build-up in the 1970s. On Mar. 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by his nephew Prince Faisal. Crown Prince Khalid (Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Saud) then became the new king, stressing Islamic orthodoxy and conservatism while expanding the country's economy, its social programs, and its educational structures. Saudi Arabia denounced the 1979 agreement between Israel and Egypt and terminated diplomatic relations with Egypt (since renewed). Saudi leaders opposed both the leftist and radical movements that were growing throughout the Arab world, and in the 1970s sent troops to help quell leftist revolutions in Yemen and Oman.
Saudi religious interests were threatened by the fall of Iran's shah in 1979 and by the growth of Islamic fundamentalism. In Nov., 1979, Muslim fundamentalists calling for the overthrow of the Saudi government occupied the Great Mosque in Mecca. After two weeks of fighting the siege ended, leaving a total of 27 Saudi soldiers and over 100 rebels dead. Sixty-three more rebels were later publicly beheaded. In 1980, Shiite Muslims led a series of riots that were put down by the government, which promised to reform the distribution of Saudi wealth. Saudi Arabia supported Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War throughout the 1980s. In May, 1981, it joined Persian Gulf nations in the formation of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) to promote economic cooperation between the participating countries. Khalid died in June, 1982, and was succeeded by his half-brother, Prince Fahd ibn Abdul Aziz.
By the early 1980s, Saudi Arabia had gained full ownership of Aramco. Saudi support of Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War became increasingly problematic in the mid-1980s as Iran's threats, especially regarding oil interests, nearly led to Saudi entanglement in the war. Iranian pilgrims rioted in Mecca during the hajj in 1987, causing clashes with Saudi security troops. More than 400 people were killed. This incident, along with Iranian naval attacks on Saudi ships in the Persian Gulf, caused Saudi Arabia to break diplomatic relations with Iran.
When Iraq invaded Kuwait in Aug., 1990, King Fahd agreed to the stationing of U.S. and international coalition troops on Saudi soil. Thousands of Saudi troops participated in the Persian Gulf War (1991) against Iraq. The country took in Kuwait's royal family and more than 400,000 Kuwaiti refugees. Though little ground fighting occurred in Saudi Arabia, the cities of Riyadh, Dhahran, and outlying areas were bombed by Iraqi missiles. Coalition troops largely left Saudi Arabia in late 1991; several thousand U.S. troops remained. In 1995 and 1996 terrorist bombings in Riyadh and Dharan killed several American servicemen.
Following the Gulf War, King Fahd returned to a conservative Arab stance, wary of greater Western cooperation. Reforms instituted in the wake of the Gulf War included the creation of a Shura (advisory council), with rights to review but not overrule government acts, promulgation of a bill of rights, and a revision in the procedures for choosing the king. However, these measures left the royal family's power basically undiminished. In 1995 the king created a Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs, composed of royal family members and other appointees, in an apparent effort to establish a counterweight to the Ulemas Council, an advisory body of highly conservative Muslim theologians.
In the late 1990s, Crown Prince Abdullah, the king's half-brother and heir to the throne since 1982, effectively became the country's ruler because of King Fahd's poor health. Under the crown prince, the country has been more openly frustrated with and critical of U.S. support for Israel. A treaty with Yemen that ended border disputes dating to the 1930s was signed in 2000, and early the next year both nations withdrew their troops from the border area in compliance with the pact.
The Saudi government restricted the use of American bases in the country during the U.S.-led invasions of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003), and by Sept., 2003, all U.S. combat forces were withdrawn from the country. Also in 2003, the king issued a decree giving the Shura the authority to propose new laws without first seeking his permission. The move was perhaps prompted in part by rare protests in favor of government reform; the kingdom also was shaken by violent incidents, including a massive car bomb attack against a residential compound in Riyadh, involving Islamic militants. Such terror attacks continued into 2005. The country held elections for municipal councils in Feb.—Apr., 2005, permitting voters (men only) to choose half the council members; the rest of the members were still appointed. King Fahd died in Aug., 2005, and was succeeded by Abdullah.
Riyadh
الرياضAr Riyāḍ Central Riyadh, with the Kingdom Centre tower visible Location of Riyadh Coordinates: 24°38′N 46°43′E / 24.633°N 46.717°E / 24.633; 46.717Coordinates: 24°38′N 46°43′E / 24.633°N 46.717°E / 24.633; 46.717 Country Saudi Arabia Province Riyadh Province Government • Mayor Abdul Aziz ibn 'Ayyaf Al Muqrin • Provincial Emir Prince Sattam Bin Abdul Aziz Area • Urban 1,000 km2 (400 sq mi) • Metro 1,815 km2 (701 sq mi) Elevation 612 m (2,008 ft) Population (2010)[citation needed] • City 5,254,560 • Density 3,024/km2 (7,833/sq mi) • Metro 6,800,000 Riyadh Development Authority estimate Time zone EAT (UTC+3) • Summer (DST) EAT (UTC+3) Postal Code (5 digits) Area code(s) +966-1 Website www.arriyadh.com Riyadh (/rɨˈjɑːd/; Arabic: الرياض transliterated Ar Riyāḍ pronounced [ʔɑrːiˈjɑːdˤ], English: The Gardens) is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of Riyadh Province, and belongs to the historical regions of Najd and Al-Yamama. It is situated in the center of the Arabian Peninsula on a large plateau, and is home to 5,254,560 people, and the urban center of a region with a population of close to 7 million people. The city is divided into 15 municipal districts, managed by Riyadh Municipality headed by the mayor of Riyadh, and the Riyadh Development Authority, chaired by the Governor of Riyadh Province, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz. The current mayor of Riyadh is Abdul Aziz ibn Ayyaf Al-Miqrin, appointed in 1998. Riyadh has the largest female university in the world, the Princess Nora bint Abdulrahman University.[1]. It has been designated as Beta World City.
[edit] History
[edit] Early history
During the Pre-Islamic era, the settlement at the site was called Hajr (Arabic: حجر), and was reportedly founded by the tribe of Banu Hanifa.[2] Hajr served as the capital of the province of Al Yamamah, whose governors were responsible for most of central and eastern Arabia during the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. Al-Yamamah broke away from the Abbasid Empire in 866 and the area fell under the rule of the Ukhaydhirites, who moved the capital from Hajr to nearby Al Kharj. The city then went into a long period of decline. In the 14th century North African traveller Ibn Battuta wrote of his visit to Hajr, describing it as "the main city of Al-Yamamah, and its name is Hajr". Ibn Battuta goes on to describe it as a city of canals and trees with most of its inhabitants belonging to Bani Hanifa, and reports that he continued on with their leader to Mecca to perform the Hajj.
Later on, Hajr broke up into several separate settlements and estates. The most notable of these were Migrin (or Muqrin) and Mi'kal, though the name Hajr continued to appear in local folk poetry. The earliest known reference to the area by the name Riyadh comes from a 17th-century chronicler reporting on an event from the year 1590. In 1737, Deham ibn Dawwas, a refugee from neighboring Manfuha, took control of Riyadh. Ibn Dawwas built a single wall to encircle the various quarters of Riyadh, making them effectively a single town.
[edit] The three Saudi states
In 1744, Muhammad ibn Abdel Wahhab formed an alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud, the ruler of the nearby town of Diriyah. Ibn Saud then set out to conquer the surrounding region with the goal of bringing it under the rule of a single Islamic state. Ibn Dawwas of Riyadh led the most determined resistance, allied with forces from Al Kharj, Al Ahsa, and the Banu Yam clan of Najran.
However, Ibn Dawwas fled and Riyadh capitulated to the Saudis in 1774, ending long years of wars, and leading to the declaration of the First Saudi State.
The First Saudi State was destroyed by forces sent by Muhammad Ali of Egypt, acting on behalf of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces razed the Saudi capital Diriyah in 1818. In 1823, Turki ibn Abdallah, the founder of the Second Saudi State, revived the state and chose Riyadh as the new capital. Internecine struggles between Turki's grandsons led to the fall of the Second Saudi State in 1891 at the hand of the rival Al Rashid clan, who ruled from the northern city of Ha'il. Riyadh itself fell under the rule of Al Rashid in 1865. The al-Masmak fort dates from this period.
The city was recaptured in 1902 from the Al Rashid family by King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. He went on to establish the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, with Riyadh the capital of the nation.
[edit] Geography
[edit] Climate
Summer temperatures are very hot, approaching 50 degrees Celsius. The average high temperature in July is 43.5°C. Winters are mild with cold, windy nights. The overall climate is arid, receiving very little rainfall, but the city receives a fair amount of rain in March and April. It is also known to have many dust storms. The dust is often so thick that visibility is under 10 meters.
Climate data for Riyadh Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 31.5
(88.7)34.8
(94.6)38.0
(100.4)42.0
(107.6)45.1
(113.2)49.8
(121.6)52.0
(125.6)47.8
(118.0)44.5
(112.1)41.0
(105.8)36.0
(96.8)31.0
(87.8)52.0
(125.6)Average high °C (°F) 20.1
(68.2)23.0
(73.4)27.6
(81.7)34.0
(93.2)39.6
(103.3)42.7
(108.9)43.4
(110.1)43.2
(109.8)41.3
(106.3)35.1
(95.2)27.6
(81.7)22.0
(71.6)33.1
(91.6)Daily mean °C (°F) 14.4
(57.9)16.9
(62.4)21.1
(70.0)26.9
(80.4)32.9
(91.2)35.4
(95.7)36.6
(97.9)36.5
(97.7)33.3
(91.9)28.2
(82.8)21.4
(70.5)16.1
(61.0)26.6
(79.9)Average low °C (°F) 6.9
(44.4)9.0
(48.2)15.0
(59.0)20.3
(68.5)25.7
(78.3)27.6
(81.7)29.1
(84.4)28.8
(83.8)25.7
(78.3)20.9
(69.6)15.3
(59.5)8.4
(47.1)19.9
(67.8)Record low °C (°F) −1.11
(30.00)0.5
(32.9)4.5
(40.1)11.0
(51.8)18.0
(64.4)16.0
(60.8)23.6
(74.5)22.7
(72.9)16.1
(61.0)13.0
(55.4)7.0
(44.6)1.4
(34.5)−1.11
(30.00)Rainfall mm (inches) 11.7
(0.461)8.5
(0.335)34.8
(1.37)55.7
(2.193)4.6
(0.181)0.0
(0)0.0
(0)0.2
(0.008)0.0
(0)1.7
(0.067)7.9
(0.311)13.0
(0.512)94.8
(3.732)% humidity 47 38 34 28 17 11 10 12 14 21 36 47 26 Avg. precipitation days 5.8 4.8 14.6 20.0 3.5 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 1.2 3.4 6.3 45.2 Source: [3] [edit] City districts
Riyadh is divided into 15 branch municipalities,[4] in addition to the Diplomatic Quarter. Each branch municipality in turn contains several districts,[5] though some districts are divided between more than one branch municipality.[4]
The branch municipalities are Al-Shemaysi, Irqah, Al-Ma'athar, Al-Olayya, Al-Aziziyya, Al-Malaz, Al-Selayy, Nemar, Al-Neseem, Al-Shifa, Al-'Urayja, Al-Bat'ha, Al-Ha'ir, Al-Rawdha, and Al-Shimal ("the North"). Although the Riyadh Development Authority conducts projects in Dir'iyyah, administratively, Al-Diriyah is a separate city outside of the Riyadh Municipality and is the seat of its own governorate.[6]
According to the website of the Riyadh Municipality, Riyadh contains more than 130 districts.[7][8]
Examples of some of the main districts of Riyadh are the following:
Olaya District is the commercial heart of the city, with accommodation, entertainment, dining and shopping options. The Kingdom Center, Al Faisalyah and Al-Tahlya Street are the area's most prominent landmarks.
The Diplomatic Quarter, or DQ as it is popularly known, is home to foreign embassies and international organizations as well as residential structures and malls. With lush gardens and numerous sports facilities, it is also one of the city's greenest areas. It is especially known for its fine architecture, and is considered a model for other Islamic cities around the world. Despite its name, the special privileges offered in the Diplomatic Quarter constitute a controversial issue. All Saudi laws must be obeyed and there are occasional patrols by the Mutaween, or Saudi religious police. However, foreign diplomats and their families are allowed certain privileges and it is not very uncommon to see foreign diplomats and their wives strolling on the streets of the DQ in shorts and short-sleeve shirts.
The centre of the city, Al-Bathaa and Al-Dirah, is also its oldest part. At its heart lies the 19th-century Al Masmak fort, which is one of the city's major attractions; to the west lies the Riyadh Museum of History and Archeology and the Murabba' Palace, an old residence of first Saudi king, Ibn Saud, now a museum. The Qasr Al-Hukm, or Palace of Justice, is nearby. It is here that the Governor of Riyadh Province meets citizens, listens to their grievances and problems, and stays abreast of all aspects of the region's life. The Al-Dira area also contains commercial markets and traditional buildings, such as the Al-Mu'eiqilia market and the city's Grand Mosque.
[edit] Architectural Landmarks
[edit] Vernacular Architecture of Old Riyadh
The old town of Riyadh within the city Walls did exceed an area of 1 square km, therefore there are very few significant architectural remnants of the original walled oasis town of Riyadh exist today. The most prominent is the al-Masmak fort and some parts of the original wall structure with its gate which have been restored and reconstructed. There are also a number of traditional mud-brick houses within these old limits, however they are for the most part dilapidated.
Expansion outside the city walls was slow to begin with although there were some smaller oases and settlements surrounding Riyadh. The first major construction beyond the walls was King Abdulaziz's Murabba' palace. It was constructed in 1936, completed in 1937 and a household of 800 people moved into it in 1938. The palace was big enough to be mistaken as the city of Riyadh by travellers approaching it from the north. During the life King Abdulaziz, the palace was subject to numerous expansions (of grounds and buildings). It was constructed in the style of Najdi architecture of mud-bricks and marked a level of architectural maturity that was unprecedented on that scale. Nowadays, only a fragment of what it encompassed is restored and rebuilt in the traditional manner. However, the palace is now part of a bigger complex called "The King Abdulaziz Historical Centre".
There are other traditional villages and towns in the area around traditional Riyadh which the urban sprawl reached and currently encompasses. These are Diriyah, Manfuha and Wadi Laban to name a few. Unlike in the early days of development in Riyadh during which vernacular structures were razed to the ground without consideration, there is a new-found appreciation for traditional architecture. The Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities is making efforts for revitalizing the historic architecture in Riyadh and other parts of the kingdom.[20]
[edit] Contemporary Architecture of Riyadh
[edit] Burj Al Mamlakah
Main article: Kingdom CentreThe 99-floor, 300 m (1000 ft) high Kingdom Centre (Arabic: برج المملكة) is the tallest skyscraper in Riyadh and the 67th tallest building in the world. The tower is built on 94,230 square meters of land. The Kingdom Centre is owned by a group of companies including Kingdom Holding Co. headed by Al-Waleed bin Talal, a prince of the Saudi royal family, and is the headquarters of his holding company, the Kingdom Holding Company. The project cost 2 billion Saudi Arabian Riyals and the contract was undertaken by Saudi Arabia's EL-Seif Engineering Contracting Co.. The Kingdom Centre is located on Al-Urubah Road between King Fahd Road and Olaya Street in the growing business district of Al-Olaya.[clarification needed] The Kingdom Centre is the winner of the 2002 Emporis Skyscraper Award, selected as the "best new skyscraper of the year for design and functionality". A three-level shopping center, which also won a major design award, fills the east wing. The large opening is illuminated at night in continuously changing colors. The shopping center has a separate floor for women only to shop where men are not allowed to enter.
[edit] Burj Al Faisaliyah
Al Faisaliyah Center (Arabic: برج الفيصلية) is the first skyscraper constructed in Saudi Arabia, and is the second tallest building in Riyadh after the Kingdom Center. The golden ball that lies atop the tower is said to be inspired by a ballpoint pen, and contains a restaurant; immediately below this is an outside viewing deck. There is a shopping center with major world brands at ground level. Al Faisaliyah Center also has a hotel at both sides of the tower while the main building is occupied by offices run by different companies.
[edit] Riyadh TV Tower
The Riyadh TV Tower is a 170 meter high television tower located inside the premises of Saudi Ministry of Information. It was completed in 1978.
[edit] Ministry of Interior Building
The headquarters for the country's Interior Ministry has a unique design of an upside down pyramid.
[edit] Al Masmak Castle
Main article: Masmak CastleThis castle was built around 1865 under the reign of Mohammed ibn Abdullah ibn Rasheed (1289–1315 AH), the ruler of Ha'il to the north, who had wrested control of the city from the rival clan of Al Saud. In January 1902 Ibn Saud, who was at the time living in exile in Kuwait succeeded in capturing the Masmak fortress from its Rashid garrison. The event, which restored Saudi control over Riyadh, has acquired almost mythical status in the history of Saudi Arabia. The story of the event is often retold, and has as its central theme the heroism and bravery of the King Abd Abdulaziz Ibn Saud.
[edit] Economy
Riyadh is one of the richest cities in the Middle East and the 80th richest city in the world. Once a small walled city, Riyadh has developed into a dynamic metropolis over the years. Along with the urban areas of Dhahran, Dammam, Khobar and Jeddah, Riyadh has become a focal point for both travel and trade.
In addition to being the center of power, the city is also a commercial hub. Numerous educational, financial, agricultural, cultural, technical, and social organizations have set up base here. The architecture is mostly modern, including contemporary high-rise towers, but the Al-Dira district, the nucleus of the city, has been rebuilt in a style meant to evoke the old mud-brick buildings of pre-20th century Nejd.
From the beginning of oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to the present day, the government has promoted growth in the private sector by privatizing industries such as power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans for privatizing the electricity companies. A lot of these new private conglomerates and companies headquarters are located in Riyadh, along with National Banks headquarters. Because of that, Riyadh is considered as the capital city financial and business center of the Middle East.
King Khalid International Airport has a major impact on the commercial movement in Riyadh, providing air transportation for millions of people each year and shipping goods to the city from all continents. When Sama, an airline, existed, its head office was in Riyadh.[21][22]
[edit] King Fahd Road
King Fahd road is the main road in Riyadh city and considered as the most beautiful street of Riyadh. It was constructed in 1980-1981. Many business places in Riyadh prefer to locate their head offices on King Fahd road, and headquarters of major companies and organizations are located on both sides of the road. Huge malls, business towers and skyscrapers are widely distributed on this road. However, many roads are becoming more attractive to businesses as King Fahd road is now crowded most times of the day. King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz road, Mohammed bin Fahd "Tahlia", Prince Sultan, north ring road have all became alternatives for business and companies' head offices.[citation needed]
The northern end reaches the Airport over another highway. According to many opinions[who?], King Fahd Road is one of the most beautiful street in Saudi Arabia, making the road a popular tourist attraction. Famous landmarks such as Kingdom Centre, Al Faisaliyah Center, Al Anoud Tower and the Ministry of Interior building are also located on King Fahd Road. However, it is fast becoming second to King Abdullah Street which has seen major building projects and a train track and tunnel system is currently under construction.
[edit] The Industrial City
The industrial areas are located on the East and the North-East of the city, including some of the world's largest factories of oil-related industries. Aramco has large operations in the area which includes oil refineries. Electricity and water-treatments plants supply the city with their much-needed energy and water, which also reach the nearby towns.
[edit] Demographics
[edit] Population
The city has experienced very high rates of population growth, from 150,000 inhabitants in the 1960s to over 5 million, according to the most recent sources.[citation needed]
Year Population 1918 18,000 1924 30,000 1944 50,000 1952 80,000 1960 150,000 1972 500,000 1974 650,000 1978 760,000 1987 1,389,000 1990 2,110,000 1992 2,776,000 1997 3,100,000 2001 4,137,000 2009 4,878,723 2010 5,254,560 2012 5,400,000 As the capital of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh is a diverse city with residents from Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Yemen and Sudan. The population of Riyadh is 60% Saudi and 40% foreign, with foreigners mainly coming from Asia and Arab countries.[citation needed] Many of these foreigners are more than just temporary residents; many migrated decades ago and have since become permanent residents of the city.
[edit] Culture
[edit] Places of worship
The city has over 4,300 mosques[citation needed]
In the city's municipal cemeteries, graves are not permitted to have tombstones, but in March 2012 local authorities approved a project to mark each grave using electronic devices. Spokesman Sulaiman Al-Bathi explained: "This will put an end to the old methods used by families, relatives and friends to identify the graves of their loved ones".[23]
[edit] Cuisine
Like other Saudi cities, the Nejdi dish Kabsa is the most traditional meal in Riyadh. The Yemeni dish Mandi is also popular meal, particularly as a lunchtime meal. Fast food is also popular in the city, with several multinational chains.
People living in Riyadh can also enjoy the diversity of international cuisine at the modern malls, hotels and restaurants. From fine dining high end dining to the local hidden desert stall Riyadh's selection is endless.
[edit] Museums and collections
In 1999 a new central Museum was built in Riyadh at the eastern side of the King Abdul Aziz Historical Centre. This National Museum of Saudi Arabia combined several collections and pieces that had up till then been scattered over several Institutions and places in Riyadh and the Kingdom. For example the meteorite fragment known as the "Camel's Hump" that was on display at the King Saud University in Riyadh became the new entry piece of the National Museum of Saudi Arabia.
The Royal Saudi Air Force Museum or Saqr Al-Jazira is located on the East Ring Road of Riyadh between exits 10 and 11. It contains a collection of aircraft and aviation-related items used by the Royal Saudi Air Force and Saudia.
Riyadh is served by four Arabic, two English, and one Urdu language newspapers, Asharq Al-Awsat (which is owned by the city governor), Al-Riyadh, Al-Jazeera and Al-Watan. The Saudi Gazette and Arab News are in English, whereas the Urdu News is read by Urdu speakers in the city. Television stations serving the city area include Saudi TV1, Saudi TV2, Saudi TV Sports, Al-Ekhbariya, ART channels network. Arabic is the main language used in television and radio but radio broadcasts are also made in different languages such as Urdu, French, or English; other languages are also used by cable, satellite and other speciality television providers. The Riyadh TV Tower is a 170 m (560 ft) high television tower with an observation deck overlooking Riyadh. Construction was begun on the tower in 1978 and finished in 1981. It is considered part of the Ministry of Information.
[edit] Sports
Football is the most popular sport in Riyadh. The city hosts four major football clubs, such as Al Shabab, which was established in 1947 and holds a good record in the Saudi Premier League. Al-Nasr club is another famous team in the league, which has been named champion of the Saudi League six times. It was established in 1955. Another well-known club, Al-Hilal, was established in 1957 and has won ten championships. There is also Al-Riyadh Club, which was established in 1954, and many other minor clubs.
The city also hosts several large stadiums such as King Fahd International Stadium with a seating capacity of 70,000. The stadium hosted the FIFA Confederations Cup three times, in the years 1992, 1995 and 1997. And also the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 1989.
Cricket is also the second most popular sport in Riyadh. Cricket is mostly played by the expat population, who are predominantly from the Indian Sub continent.
[edit] Language
The Riyadh city area has a distinctive regional speech pattern called the Najdi dialect. It is often considered to be one of the most recognizable accents within the Arabic language. Najdi Arabic is widely spoken in the desert regions of central and eastern Saudi Arabia. English is also widely spoken and is understood by many residents of Riyadh.
[edit] Transportation
[edit] Airports
Riyadh's King Khalid International Airport (IATA: RUH), located 35 kilometers north from the city center, is the city's main airport. It's one of the seven international airports in the country serving over 15 million passengers a year. This Airport faces a huge load of passengers which is increasing every year, especially during the Muslim festive season in which mostly foreign residents travel to their home countries. In addition, there is also the (Riyadh old airport) or (Riyadh Air Base airport) as it names know, the Air Base airport now is use via official delegations and dignitaries.
[edit] Highways
The city is served by a modern major highway system. The main Eastern Ring Road connects the city's south and north, while the Northern Ring Road connects the city's east and west. King Fahd Road runs through the center of the city from north to south, in parallel with the East Ring Road. Makkah Road, which runs east-west across the city's center, connects eastern parts of the city with the city's main business district and the diplomatic quarters.
[edit] Railway
Saudi Railway Authority operates two separate passenger and cargo lines between Riyadh and Dammam passing through Hofuf, and Haradh. Two future railway projects connecting Riyadh with Jeddah and Mecca in the western region and connecting Riyadh with Buraidah, Ha'il and Northern Saudi Arabia are underway. Developers are the RC corporation, wholly owned by H O’Donovan, W Daly and S Burgoyne, however, are now being built single-handedly by H O'Donovan.
[edit] Public transport
The Saudi Arabian Public Transport Co. (SAPTCO), the national bus system, does not provide public transportation inside the city, but transports passengers to several cities across the kingdom and neighboring countries.
An electric sky train system has been approved and the first phase will be installed in King Abdullah Road, King Fahd Road and Al Olaya Road. It will run for 25km and will include communication services such as phones and internet. There is no date when they will start the project.[24]
[edit] Hospitals
- Dr.Sulaiman Al-Habib Medical Complex in Olaya - Riyadh
- Dr.Sulaiman Al-Habib hospital in arryan- Riyadh
- Obeid Specialized Hospital, Farazdaq St, Al- Malaz - Riyadh
- Al Hammady Hospital - Riyadh
- Al Mashary Hospital - Riyadh
- Al Mowasat Hospital - Riyadh
- Al Shumaisi government hospital - Riyadh
- Armed Force Hospital - Riyadh
- Prince Sultan Cardiac Center - Riyadh
- Al Yamama Hospital - Riyadh
- Dallah Hospital - Riyadh
- Green Crescent Hospital - Riyadh
- Home Doctor G.C.H.S. - Riyadh
- Riyadh Military Hospital - Riyadh
- Specialized Medical Center - Riyadh
- Saudi German Hospital - Riyadh
- King Abdulaziz Medical City - Riyadh
- King Abdulaziz University Hospital - Riyadh
- King Fahad Hospital - Riyadh
- King Fahad Medical City - Riyadh
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes and references
[edit] External links
Capitals of Asia
West and Southwest Asia Central Asia East Asia Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Amman, Jordan
Ankara, Turkey 8
Baghdad, Iraq
Baku, Azerbaijan 8
Beirut, Lebanon
Damascus, Syria
Doha, Qatar
Episkopi, Akrotiri and Dhekelia 7
Jerusalem, proclaimed for both Israel and Palestine 6 7
Kabul, Afghanistan 1
Kuwait City, Kuwait
Manama, Bahrain
Muscat, Oman
Nicosia, Cyprus 7
Ramallah, Palestine Temporary
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Sana'a, Yemen
Tbilisi, Georgia 8
Tehran, Iran
Jerusalem, Israel
Yerevan, Armenia 7Beijing, People's Republic of China (PRC)
Pyongyang, North Korea
Seoul, South Korea
Tokyo, Japan
Taipei, Taiwan 2
Ulan Bator, Mongolia 1Southeast Asia
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Bangkok, Thailand
Dili, East Timor 10
Hanoi, Vietnam
Jakarta, Indonesia
Kuala Lumpur 4 and Putrajaya,5 Malaysia
Manila, Philippines
Naypyidaw, Burma
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea 9
Singapore, Singapore
Vientiane, Laos1 Often considered part of Central Asia. 2 Officially the Republic of China (ROC). 3 Full name is Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte.
4 Formal. 5 Administrative. 6 See Positions on Jerusalem for details on Jerusalem's status. 7 Entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 8 Transcontinental country. 9 Entirely in Melanesia but having socio-political connections with Southeast Asia. 10 Classified as Melanesia according to some definitions.
Provides an overview of Saudi Arabia, including key events and facts about the birthplace of Islam
Saudi Arabia
Geography
Facts & Figures Sovereign: King Abdullah (2005)
Land area: 829,995 sq mi (2,149,690 sq km)
Population (2010 est.): 29,207,277 (growth rate: 1.7%); birth rate: 28.2/1000; infant mortality rate: 11.2/1000; life expectancy: 76.5; density per sq mi: 33
Capital and largest city (2003 est.): Riyadh, 3,724,100
Other large cities: Jeddah, 2,745,000; Makkah (Mecca), 1,614,800
Monetary unit: Riyal
Saudi Arabia occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula, with the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba to the west and the Persian Gulf to the east. Neighboring countries are Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, the Sultanate of Oman, Yemen, and Bahrain, connected to the Saudi mainland by a causeway. Saudi Arabia contains the world's largest continuous sand desert, the Rub Al-Khali, or Empty Quarter. Its oil region lies primarily in the eastern province along the Persian Gulf.
GovernmentSaudi Arabia was an absolute monarchy until 1992, at which time the Saud royal family introduced the country's first constitution. The legal system is based on the sharia (Islamic law).
HistorySaudi Arabia is not only the homeland of the Arab peoples—it is thought that the first Arabs originated on the Arabian Peninsula—but also the homeland of Islam, the world's second-largest religion. Muhammad founded Islam there, and it is the location of the two holy pilgrimage cities of Mecca and Medina. The Islamic calendar begins in 622, the year of the hegira, or Muhammad's flight from Mecca. A succession of invaders attempted to control the peninsula, but by 1517 the Ottoman Empire dominated, and in the middle of the 18th century, it was divided into separate principalities. In 1745 Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab began calling for the purification and reform of Islam, and the Wahhabi movement swept across Arabia. By 1811, Wahhabi leaders had waged a jihad—a holy war—against other forms of Islam on the peninsula and succeeded in uniting much of it. By 1818, however, the Wahhabis had been driven out of power again by the Ottomans and their Egyptian allies.
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is almost entirely the creation of King Ibn Saud (1882–1953). A descendant of Wahhabi leaders, he seized Riyadh in 1901 and set himself up as leader of the Arab nationalist movement. By 1906 he had established Wahhabi dominance in Nejd and conquered Hejaz in 1924–1925. The Hejaz and Nejd regions were merged to form the kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, which was an absolute monarchy ruled by sharia. A year later the region of Asir was incorporated into the kingdom.
São Tomé and Príncipe Countries Senegal
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia المملكة العربية السعوديةal-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah
Motto: "لا إله إلا الله , محمد رسول الله "
"There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." (Shahada)[1]Anthem: "as-Salām al-Malakiyy" "Long live the King"
Capital
(and largest city)Riyadh
24°39′N 46°46′E / 24.65°N 46.767°E / 24.65; 46.767Official language(s) Arabic[2] Demonym Saudi Arabian, Saudi (informal) Government Unitary Islamic
absolute monarchy- King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz - Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdul Aziz Legislature None – legislation by king's decree.[a] Establishment - Kingdom founded 23 September 1932[3] Area - Total 2,250,000 km2 (12th)
870,000 sq mi- Water (%) 0.7 Population - 2010 estimate 27,136,977[4] (46th) - Density 12/km2 (216th)
31/sq miGDP (PPP) 2012 estimate - Total $733.143 billion[5] - Per capita $25,465.97[5] GDP (nominal) 2012 estimate - Total $651.652 billion[5] - Per capita $22,635.35[5] HDI (2011) 0.770[6] (high) (56th)
Currency Saudi riyal (SR) (SAR) Time zone AST (UTC+3) - Summer (DST) (not observed) (UTC+3) Drives on the Right ISO 3166 code SA Internet TLD .sa, السعودية. Calling code +966 a.^ Consultative Assembly exists only with an advisory role to the king. Saudi Arabia (i/ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbi.ə/ or i/ˌsɔːdiː əˈreɪbi.ə/; Arabic: السعودية as-Su‘ūdīyah[citation needed] or incorrectly as-Sa‘ūdīyah, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.[7]
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
Saudi Arabia has the world's second largest oil reserves and is the second largest oil exporter.[8] Oil accounts for more than 95% of exports and 70% of government revenues, facilitating the creation of a welfare state[9] although the share of the non-oil economy is growing recently. It has also the world's sixth largest natural gas reserves.
[edit] Etymology
Following the unification of the Kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah (a transliteration of المملكة العربية السعودية in Arabic) by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, King Abdul Aziz Al Saud. This is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,[10] although it literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom".[11]
The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Suʻūdīyah in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of Al Saud (آل سعود). Its inclusion indicated that the country's ruler viewed it as the personal possession of the royal family.[12][13]Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of",[14] to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynasty's 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud (Muhammad, son of Saud).[15] For the etymology of Arabia, see Arabian Peninsula and Arab (etymology).
[edit] History
[edit] From the earliest times to the foundation of Saudi Arabia
Apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of the Arabian Peninsula, most of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic tribal societies in the uninhabitable desert.[16] The Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 571. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge swathes of territory (from the Iberian Peninsula in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. In so doing, Arabia soon became a politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the more developed conquered lands.[17] From the 10th century to the early 20th century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[18][19]
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Hasa) to their Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. The degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority.[20][21] The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab,[22] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[23] This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.[24] The first 'Saudi State' established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[25] but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha.[26] A much smaller second ‘Saudi state’, located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile.[18]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have suzerainty (albeit nominal) over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers[27][28] (including the House of Saud who had returned from exile in 1902[18]) with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.[29] In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.[30] Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, Arabia was freed from Ottoman suzerainty and control by the latter's defeat in World War I.[31]
In 1902, Abdul-Aziz bin Saud, leader of the House of Saud, had seized Riyadh in Nejd from the Al Rashid – the first of a series of conquests ultimately leading to the creation of the modern state of Saudi Arabia in 1932.[18] The main weapon for achieving these conquests was the Ikhwan, the Wahhabist-Bedouin tribal army led by Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish.[32] From the Saudi core in Nejd, and aided by the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the Ikhwan had completed the conquest of the territory that was to become Saudi Arabia by the end of 1925.[33] On 10 January 1926 Abdul-Aziz declared himself King of the Hejaz and, then, on 27 January 1927 he took the title of King of Nejd (his previous title having been 'Sultan').[18] After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leaders wanted to continue the expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. Abdul-Aziz, however, refused to agree to this, recognizing the danger of a direct conflict with the British. The Ikhwan therefore revolted but were defeated in the Battle of Sabilla in 1930, where the Ikhwan leadership were massacred.[34]
In 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[18]
[edit] From the foundation of the State to the present
The new kingdom was one of the poorest countries in the world, reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.[35] However, in 1938 vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Hasa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the center for newspapers and radio. But the large influx of foreigners to work in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.[18]
King Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However, an intense rivalry between the King and his half-brother, Prince Faisal emerged, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. As a consequence, Saud was deposed in favor of Faisal in 1964. The major event of King Faisal's reign was the 1973 oil crisis, when Saudi Arabia, and the other Arab oil producers, tried to put pressure on the US to withdraw support from Israel through an oil embargo.[18] Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid.[36]
Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid during whose reign economic and social development progressed at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;[18] in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.[36] In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the Al Saud regime,[37] and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. In fact, there were several anti-government uprisings in the region in 1979 and 1980. The second event, was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi regime.[38] Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the Ulema a greater role in government.[39] Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.[40]
Khalid was succeeded by his brother King Fahd in 1982 who continued the close relationship with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.[18] From 1976 Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.[41] The Saudi regime spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran-Iraq War.[42] The vast wealth generated by oil revenues and channeled through the government had a profound impact on Saudi society. It led to urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family[18] leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.[43]
Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 Saudi Arabia joined the anti-Iraq Coalition. King Fahd, fearing an attack from Iraq, invited American and coalition soldiers to be stationed in Saudi Arabia.[18] This action concerned some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamic terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamic terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals – the 9/11 attacks in New York being the most prominent example.[44] But also many Saudis who did not necessarily support the Islamist terrorists were deeply unhappy with the government stance.[45]
Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the regime. Although now extremely wealthy, the country's economy was near stagnant, which, combined with high taxes and a growth in unemployment, contributed to disquiet in the country, and was reflected in a subsequent rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited 'reforms' were initiated (such as the Basic Law). However, the royal family's intent was to respond to dissent while making as few actual changes in the status quo as possible. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind: “A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā].”[18]
In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke and the Crown Prince, Prince Abdullah assumed the role of acting King, albeit his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").[46]Abdullah continued the policy of mild reform and greater openness,[47] but in addition, adopted a foreign policy distancing the kingdom from the US. In 2003, Saudi Arabia refused to support the US and its allies in the invasion of Iraq.[18] However, terrorist activity increased dramatically in 2003, with the Riyadh compound bombings and other attacks, which prompted the government to take much more stringent action against terrorism.[48]
In 2005, King Fahd died and his half-brother, Abdullah ascended to the throne. The king subsequently introduced a new program of moderate reform which included a number of economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. He has taken much more vigorous action to deal with the origins of Islamic terrorism, and has ordered the use of force for the first time by the security services against some extremists. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate indiviuals and the appointment of the country’s first female deputy minister.[18]
In early 2011, King Abdullah indicated his opposition to the protests and revolutions affecting the Arab world by giving asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and by telephoning President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[49] Saudi Arabia has also been affected by its own protests.[50] In response, King Abdullah announced a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $10.7 billion. These included funding to offset high inflation and to aid young unemployed people and Saudi citizens studying abroad, as well as the writing off of some loans. State employees will see their incomes increase by 15 per cent, and additional cash has also been made available for housing loans. No political reforms were announced as part of the package, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[51]
[edit] Politics
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy,[52] although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is, Islamic law) and the Quran. The Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever been written for Saudi Arabia, and Saudi Arabia remains the only Arab Nation where no national elections have ever taken place, since its creation.[53] No political parties or national elections are permitted[52] and according to The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, the Saudi government is the seventh most authoritarian regime from among the 167 countries rated.[54]
On 25 September 2011, Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah has announced that women will have the right to stand and vote in future local elections and join the advisory Shura council as full member and be able to run as candidates in the municipal election.[55]
[edit] Monarchy and royal family
The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions[56] and royal decrees to form the basis of the country's legislation.[57] The king is also the prime minister, and presides over the Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzarāʾ), which comprises the first and second deputy prime.
The royal family dominates the political system. The family’s vast numbers allow it to control most of the kingdom’s important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government.[58] The number of princes is estimated to be at least 7,000, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of King Abdul Aziz.[59] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,[52] as are the thirteen regional governorships.[60] Long term political and government appointments, such as those of King Abdullah, who had been Commander of the National Guard since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him[61]), former Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and Aviation from 1962 to his death in 2012, new crown prince Prince Nayef who has been the Minister of Interior since 1975, Prince Saud who has been Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1975[62] and current Minister of Defence and Aviation Prince Salman, who was Governor of the Riyadh Region from 1962 to 2011,[63] have resulted in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes.[64]
The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused of corruption.[65] In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,[13] the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.[59] The extent of corruption has been described as systemic[66] and endemic,[67] and its existence was acknowledged[68] and defended[69] by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family[70]) in an interview in 2001.[71] Although corruption allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations,[72] specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar US$2 billion in bribes relating to the Al-Yamamah arms deal.[73] Prince Bandar denied the allegations.[74] Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea bargain agreements with the company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.[75]Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[76]
Since the 9/11 attacks in 2001, there has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National Dialogue Forum was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.[77] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post.[78] However, the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic,[79] and the royal family is reportedly divided on the speed and direction of reform.[80]
[edit] Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema
Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government,[81] the only other example being Iran.[82] The ulema have also been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.[83] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems[84] and a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.[85]
By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the ulema was in decline.[87] However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.[88] The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:[39] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system[88] and allowed to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.[39] Since his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah has taken steps to rein back the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring their control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.[89]
The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[90] the country's leading religious family.[85] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[91] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)[92] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[93] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.[83] The pact, which persists to this day,[93] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[94] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[95] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[96] they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[85]
[edit] Political process and opposition
In the absence of national elections and political parties,[52] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.[97] The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions and ideological differences.[97] The most powerful clan faction is known as the 'Sudairi Seven', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants.[98] Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform,[80] and whether the role of the ulema should be increased or reduced. There are also divisions within the family over who should succeed to the throne after the accession or earlier death of Prince Sultan (the current Crown Prince) has occurred.[98][99]
Outside of the Al-Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs and members of important commercial families on major decisions.[56] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.[100] In theory, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.[101] In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong and, outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.[56] As mentioned earlier, in recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.[77]
The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the underground Green Party of Saudi Arabia; the Shi'ite minority – particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regional particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[102] Of these, the Islamic activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent or terrorist acts in the country.[48] However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people.[103] Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.[104] As part of the wave of protests and revolutions affecting the Middle East and North Africa in early 2011, a number of incidents and protests occurred in Saudi Arabia
[edit] Law and human rights
The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qu'ran and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet).[57] Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (or fiqh) found in pre-modern texts[106] and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qu'ran and hadith.[107] Nevertheless, because the judge is empowered to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other judges) and will apply his personal interpretation of Sharia to any particular case, divergent judgements arise even in apparently identical cases.[108] Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia.[57] Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labor, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.[109]
The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges and lawyers form part of the ulema, the country's religious leadership. However, there are also extra-Sharia government tribunals which handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.[110] Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.[111] The Saudi system of justice has been criticized for being slow, arcane,[112] lacking in some of the safeguards of justice and unable to deal with the modern world.[113] In 2007, King Abdullah issued royal decrees reforming the judiciary and creating a new court system, although the reforms have yet to be implemented.[108] The capabilities and reactionary nature of the judges have, in particular, been criticized[114] and, in 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the judiciary's personnel at the most senior level by bringing in a younger generation.[112] Saudi Arabia has long been criticized for its human rights record, with Western-based organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch condemning both the criminal justice system and its severe punishments. However, most Saudis reportedly support the system and say that it maintains a low crime rate.[115] There are no jury trials in Saudi Arabia and courts observe few formalities.[116] Human Rights Watch, in a 2008 report, noted that a criminal procedure code had been introduced for the first time in 2002, but it lacked some basic protections and, in any case, had been routinely ignored by judges. Those arrested are often not informed of the crime of which they are accused or given access to a lawyer and are subject to abusive treatment and torture if they do not confess. At trial, there is a presumption of guilt and the accused is often unable to examine witnesses and evidence or present a legal defense. Most trials are held in secret.[117]
The physical punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheading, stoning, amputation and lashing, and the number of executions have been strongly criticized.[119] The death penalty can be imposed for a wide range of offences including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by crucifixion.[120][121] The 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all carried out by public beheading. The last reported execution for sorcery took place in 2011[122] and three subsequent convictions for witchcraft did not result in execution. Although repeated theft can be punishable by amputation of the right hand, only one instance of judicial amputation was reported between 2007 and 2010. Gay rights are not recognised. Homosexual acts are punishable by flogging or death.[120][123] Lashings are a common form of punishment[124] and are often imposed for offences against religion and public morality such as drinking alcohol and neglect of prayer and fasting obligations.[120] Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.[114] Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya, or blood money, by the perpetrator.[125] Other human rights issues that have attracted strong criticism include the extremely disadvantaged position of women (see Women in Saudi society below), religious discrimination, the lack of religious freedom and the activities of the religious police (see Religion below).[119] Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia acceded to four UN human rights conventions and, in 2004, the government approved the establishment of the National Society for Human Rights (NSHR), staffed by government employees, to monitor their implementation. To date, the activities of the NSHR have been limited and doubts remain over its neutrality and independence.[126] Saudi Arabia remains one of the very few countries in the world not to accept the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In response to the continuing criticism of its human rights record, the Saudi government points to the special Islamic character of the country, and asserts that this justifies a different social and political order.[127]
[edit] Foreign relations
Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945[10][128] and is a founder member of the Arab League, Persian Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation).[129] It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005 joined the World Trade Organization.[10] Saudi Arabia supports the intended formation of the Arab Customs Union in 2015 and an Arab common market[130] by 2020, as announced at the 2009 Arab League summit.[131] As a founding member of OPEC, its oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to moderate sharp price movements so as to not jeopardise the Western economies.[10]
Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70 billion in "overseas development aid".[132] However, there is evidence that the vast majority was, in fact, spent on propagating and extending the influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other forms of Islam.[133] There has been an intense debate over whether Saudi aid and Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries.[134] The two main allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism.[135] Former CIA director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing."[136] However, the Saudi government strenuously denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism.[137]
In the Arab and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and pro-American,[138] and it is certainly a long-term ally of the United States.[139] However, this[140] and Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, particularly the stationing of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally .[141] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S. and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[56] Relations with the United States became strained following 9/11.[142] American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture.[143] Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen out of the nineteen 9/11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia.[144] According to the U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups. . . . Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."[145]
Saudi Arabia's increasing alarm at the rise of Iran is reflected in the reported private comments of King Abdullah[146] urging the US to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".[147] Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab-Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah.[148] Following the wave of protests and revolutions affecting the Arab world in early 2011 Saudi Arabia offered asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and King Abdullah telephoned President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[49]
[edit] Military
The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard – the 'SANG' (an independent military force), and paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active-duty personnel. In 2005 the armed forces had the following personnel: the army, 75,000; Royal Saudi Air Force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; Royal Saudi Navy, 15,500 (including 3,000 marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. And Saudi Special Forces. [149] In addition, there is a Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah military intelligence service.
The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front-line force, and originated out of Abdul Aziz’s tribal military-religious force, the Ikhwan. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being effectively Abdullah’s private army since the 1960s and, unlike the rest of the armed forces, is independent of the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. The SANG has been a counter-balance to the Sudairi faction in the royal family: Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one of the so-called ‘Sudairi Seven’ and controls the remainder of the armed forces.[150]
Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-‘90s and was about US$25.4 billion in 2005. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military, representing about 7 percent of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world’s most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and Britain.[149] The United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military.[151] On 20 October 2010, U.S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history – an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces.[152] The UK has also been a major supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965.[153] Since 1985, the UK has supplied military aircraft – notably the Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft – and other equipment as part of the long-term Al-Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth £43 billion by 2006 and thought to be worth a further £40 billion.[154]
In May 2012, British defence giant BAE signed a £1.9bn ($3bn) deal to supply Hawk trainer jets to Saudi Arabia.[155]
[edit] Geography
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80 percent of the Arabian peninsula,[157] lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N, and longitudes 34° and 56° E. Because the country's southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely defined or marked, the exact size of the country remains unknown.[157] The CIA World Factbook's estimate is 2,250,000 km2 (868,730 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 13th largest state.[158]
Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert and associated semi-desert and shrubland (see satellite image to right). It is, in fact, a number of linked deserts and includes the 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali (“Empty Quarter”) in the southern part of the country, the world’s largest sand desert. There are virtually no rivers or lakes in the country, but wadis are numerous. The few fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[56] The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah parallel to which runs an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is mountainous, and contains the 3,133 m (10,279 ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.[56]
Except for the south western province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with extremely high day-time temperatures and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 45 °C, but can be as high as 54 °C. In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 °C. In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 °C. Annual rainfall is extremely low. The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm of rainfall occurs during this period, that is about 60% of the annual precipitation.[159]
Animal life includes wolves, hyenas, mongooses, baboons, hares, sand rats, and jerboas. Larger animals such as gazelles, oryx, and leopards were relatively numerous until the 1950s, when hunting from motor vehicles reduced these animals almost to extinction. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sand grouse and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous, and numerous types of lizards. There is a wide variety of marine life in the Persian Gulf. Domesticated animals include camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, and chickens. Reflecting the country's desert conditions, Saudi Arabia’s plant life mostly consists of small herbs and shrubs requiring little water. There are a few small areas of grass and trees in southern Asir. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.[56]
[edit] Administrative divisions
Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces[160] (manatiq idāriyya, – singular mintaqah idariyya). The Region are further divided into governorates (Arabic: manatiq idāriyya, منطقةإدارية, ), 118 in total. This number contains the regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (amanah) headed by mayors (amin). The governorates are further sudivided into sub-governorates (marakiz, sing. markaz).
[edit] Economy
Saudi Arabia's command economy is petroleum-based; roughly 75% of budget revenues and 90% of export earnings come from the oil industry. The oil industry comprises about 45% of Saudi Arabia's gross domestic product, compared with 40% from the private sector (see below). Saudi Arabia officially has about 260 billion barrels (4.1×1010 m3) of oil reserves, comprising about one-fifth of the world's proven total petroleum reserves.[161]
The government is attempting to promote growth in the private sector by privatizing industries such as power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. Shortages of water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural products.
In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of $11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to $6,300 in 1998.[162]Increases in oil prices since 2000 have helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007 dollars, or about $7,400 adjusted for inflation.[163]
Oil price increases of 2008–2009 have triggered a second oil boom, pushing Saudi Arabia's budget surplus to $28 billion (110SR billion) in 2005. Tadawul (the Saudi stock market index) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23% to close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14% from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion (589.93SR billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves." The higher their reserves, the more OPEC allows them to produce.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.6×1010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[164]Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil).[165]
Saudi Arabia is one of only a few fast-growing countries in the world with a relatively high per capita income of $24,200 (2010). Saudi Arabia will be launching six "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City)[166] which are planned to be completed by 2020. These six new industrialized cities are intended to diversify the economy of Saudi Arabia, and are expected to increase the per capita income. The King of Saudi Arabia has announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to $33,500 in 2020.[167] The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP.
However the urban areas of Riyadh and Jeddah are expected to contribute $287 billion dollars by the year 2020.[168]
[edit] Demographics
[edit] Largest cities
Largest cities or towns of Saudi Arabia
http://www.geonames.org/SA/largest-cities-in-saudi-arabia.htmlRank City name Province Pop.
Riyadh
1 Riyadh Riyadh 6,500,000
Mecca
2 Jeddah Makkah 3,900,000 3 Mecca Makkah 1,800,000 4 Medina Al Madinah 1,600,000 5 Dammam Eastern 1,300,000 6 Tabuk, Saudi Arabia Tabuk 800,000 7 Buraidah Al-Qassim 700,000 8 Khamis Mushait 'Asir 600,000 9 Abha 'Asir 500,000 10 Al-Khobar Eastern 400,000 [edit] Population and language
The population of Saudi Arabia as of July 2010 is estimated to be 25,731,776 including 5,576,076 non-nationals[2] In 1950, Saudi Arabia had a population of 3 million.[169] The ethnic composition of Saudi nationals is 90% Arab and 10% Afro-Asian.[170] Until the 1960s, a majority of the population was nomadic; but presently more than 95% of the population is settled, due to rapid economic and urban growth. As recently as the early 1960s, the Saudi Arabia’s slave population was estimated at 300,000.[171]Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.[172][173] The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic. The three main regional variants spoken by Saudis are Hejazi Arabic (about 6 million speakers), Nejdi Arabic (about 8 million speakers) and Persian Gulf (about 1.5 million speakers). The large expatriate communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous being Malayalam (1 million), Tagalog (700,000), Urdu (380,000), and Egyptian Arabic (300,000).[174]
About 31% of the population is made up of foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia.[175]Indian: 1.3 million, Pakistani: 900,000, Egyptian: 900,000, Yemeni: 800,000, Bangladeshi: 500,000, Filipino: 500,000, Jordanian/Palestinian: 260,000, Indonesian: 250,000, Sri Lankan: 350,000, Sudanese: 250,000, Syrian: 100,000 and Turkish: 100,000.[176] There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of whom live in compounds or gated communities.
Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991.[177] An estimated 240,000 Palestinians are living in Saudi Arabia. They are not allowed to hold or even apply for Saudi citizenship, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Palestinians are the sole foreign group that cannot benefit from a 2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers, which entitles expatriates of all nationalities who have resided in the kingdom for ten years to apply for citizenship with priority being given to holders of degrees in various scientific fields.[178] The Articles 12.4 and 14.1 of the Executive Regulation of Saudi Citizenship System can be interpreted as requiring applicants to be Muslim.[179]
In a 2011 news story, Arab News reported, "Nearly three million expatriate workers will have to leave the Kingdom in the next few years as the Labor Ministry has put a 20 percent ceiling on the country’s guest workers."[180]
[edit] Social issues
Saudi society has a number of issues and tensions. A rare independent opinion poll published in 2010 indicated that Saudis’ main social concerns were unemployment (at 10% in 2010[181]), corruption and religious extremism.[182][183] Crime is not a significant problem.[149] However, Saudi Arabia’s objective of being both a modern and Islamic country, coupled with economic difficulties, has created deep social tensions, including the following. Connections to the West have caused some Saudis to desire the overthrow of the Al Saud. Others want a reformed and more open government and to have more influence in the political process. On the other hand, juvenile delinquency, drug-use and use of alcohol are getting worse. High unemployment and a generation of young males filled with contempt toward the Royal Family is a significant threat to Saudi social stability. Some Saudis feel they are entitled to well-paid government jobs, and the failure of the government to satisfy this sense of entitlement has led to considerable dissatisfaction.[184][185][186] Additionally, the Shiite minority, located primarily in the Eastern Province, and who often complain of institutionalized inequality and repression, have created civil disturbances in the past. Terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia have made it clear that Saudi Arabia does harbor indigenous terrorists.[185]
According to a 2009 U.S. State Department communication by Hillary Clinton, United States Secretary of State, (disclosed as part of the Wikileaks U.S. 'cables leaks' controversy in 2010) "donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide".[187] Part of this funding arises through the zakat (An act of charity dictated by Islam) paid by all Saudis to charities, and amounting to at least 2.5 percent of their income. Although many charities are genuine, others, it is alleged, serve as fronts for money laundering and terrorist financing operations. While many Saudis contribute to those charities in good faith believing their money goes toward good causes, it has been alleged that others know full well the terrorist purposes to which their money will be applied.[136]
According to a study conducted by Dr. Nura Al-Suwaiyan, director of the family safety program at the National Guard Hospital, one in four children are abused in Saudi Arabia.[188] The National Society for Human Rights reports that almost 45% of the country's children are facing some sort of abuse and domestic violence.[189] It has also been claimed that trafficking of women is a particular problem in Saudi Arabia as the country's large number of female foreign domestic workers, and loopholes in the system cause many to fall victim to abuse and torture.[190]
Widespread inbreeding in Saudi Arabia, resulting from the traditional practice of encouraging marriage between close relatives, has produced high levels of several genetic disorders including thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, spinal muscular atrophy, deafness and muteness.[191][192]
Reporting of poverty remains a state taboo. In December 2011, days after the Arab Spring uprisings, the Saudi interior ministry detained reporter Feros Boqna and two colleagues and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.[193][194] Statistics on the issue are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue poverty figures.[195] Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous[196] because of the risk of being arrested. Three journalists: Feras Boqna, Hussam al-Drewesh and Khaled al-Rasheed were detained after posting 10-minute film 'Mal3ob 3alena', or 'We are being cheated'[197] on Saudis living in poverty to YouTube.[198] Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis are considered to be poor (2009) and 70% of Saudis do not own their houses.[199]
[edit] Religion
There are about 25 million people who are Muslim, or 97% of the total population.[200] Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority ratios.[200] About 85–90% of Saudis are Sunni, while Shias represent around 10–15% of the Muslim population.[201] The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as Wahhabism (a name which some of its proponents consider derogatory, preferring the term Salafism[202]), founded in the Arabian peninsular by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth century, is often described as 'puritanical', 'intolerant' or 'ultra-conservative'. However, proponents consider that its teachings seek to purify the practise of Islam of any innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and his companions[203] Approximately 40% of Saudi nationals consider themselves Wahhabis.[204]
In 2010, the U.S. State Department stated that in Saudi Arabia "freedom of religion is neither recognized nor protected under the law and is severely restricted in practice" and that "government policies continued to place severe restrictions on religious freedom".[205] No faith other than Islam is permitted to be practised, although there are nearly a million Christians – nearly all foreign workers – in Saudi Arabia.[206] There are no churches or other non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country.[205] Even private prayer services are forbidden in practice and the Saudi religious police reportedly regularly search the homes of Christians.[206] Foreign workers have to observe Ramadan but are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or Easter.[206]Conversion by Muslims to another religion (apostasy) carries the death penalty, although there have been no confirmed reports of executions for apostasy in recent years.[205]Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal,[205] and the last Christian priest was expelled from Saudi Arabia in 1985.[206] There are some Hindus in Saudi Arabia. Compensation in court cases discriminates against non-Muslims: once fault is determined, a Muslim receives all of the amount of compensation determined, a Jew or Christian half, and all others a sixteenth.[206]
According to Human Rights Watch, the Shia minority face systematic discrimination from the Saudi government in education, the justice system and especially religious freedom.[207] Restrictions are imposed on the public celebration of Shia festivals such as Ashura and on the Shia taking part in communal public worship.[208]
[edit] Women in Saudi society
The U.S. State department considers that “discrimination against women is a significant problem” in Saudi Arabia and that women have few political or social rights.[209] After her 2008 visit, the UN special reporter on violence against women noted the lack of women's autonomy and the absence of a law criminalizing violence against women.[209] The World Economic Forum 2010 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 129th out of 134 countries for gender parity.[210]
Every adult woman has to have a close male relative as her "guardian".[209] As a result, Human Rights Watch has described the position of Saudi women as like that of a minor, with little authority over their own lives.[211] The guardian is entitled to make a number of critical decisions on a woman's behalf.[211] These include giving approval for the woman to travel, to hold some types of business licenses, to study at a university or college and to work if the type of business is not "deemed appropriate for a woman."[209] Even where a guardian’s approval is not legally required, some officials will still ask for it.[212]
Women also face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women, and in family and inheritance law.[209]Polygamy is permitted for men,[213] and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification.[214] A woman can only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her.[215] In practice, it is very difficult for a Saudi woman to obtain a judicial divorce.[215] With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the Qu'ranic heirs.[216] Generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.[216] A Sunni Muslim can bequeath a maximum of a third of his property to non-Qu'ranic heirs. The residue is divided between agnatic heirs.[216]
Cultural norms impose restrictions on women when in public,[209] and these are enforced by the religious police, the mutawa.[217] They include requiring women to sit in separate specially designated family sections in restaurants, to wear an abaya (a loose-fitting, full-length black cloak covering the entire body) and to conceal their hair.[209] There is also effectively a ban on women driving.[218]
Men marry girls as young as ten in Saudi Arabia[219][220]Child marriage is believed to hinder the cause of women's education. The drop-out rate of girls increases around puberty, as they exchange education for marriage. Roughly 25% of college-aged young women do not attend college, and in 2005–2006, women had a 60% dropout rate.[221] Female literacy is estimated to be around 70% compared to male literacy of around 85%.[2]
Leading Saudi feminist and journalist, Wajeha al-Huwaider, has said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone. The oppression of women and the effacement of their selfhood is a flaw affecting most homes in Saudi Arabia."[222]
Although many Saudis would like more freedom in Saudi Arabia, there is evidence that many women do not want radical change.[223] Even many advocates of reform reject foreign critics, for "failing to understand the uniqueness of Saudi society."[224][225] A number of Saudi women have risen to the top of some professions or otherwise achieved prominence, for example Dr. Ghada Al-Mutairi, heads a medical research center in California[226] and Dr. Salwa Al-Hazzaa, head of the ophthalmology department at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late King Fahad’s personal ophthalmologist.[227] On 25 September 2011, King Abdullah announced that Saudi women would gain the right to vote (and to be candidates) in municipal elections, following the next round of these elections. However, a male guardian's permission is required in order to vote.[228][229]
[edit] Education
Education is free at all levels. The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. A large part of the curriculum at all levels is devoted to Islam, and, at the secondary level, students are able to follow either a religious or a technical track. Girls are able to attend school, but fewer girls attend than boys. This disproportion is reflected in the rate of literacy, which exceeds 85 percent among males and is about 70 percent among females.[2] Classes are segregated by gender. Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of Universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000. Institutions of higher education include the country's first University, King Saud University founded in 1957, the Islamic University at Medina founded in 1961, and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah founded in 1967. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and technology, military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions.[56]
The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the memorization by rote of large parts of the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all University students.[230] As a consequence, Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical skills the private sector needs" according to the CIA.[2] Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction."[231]
A further criticism of the religious focus of the Saudi education system is the nature of the Wahhabi-controlled curriculum. The Islamic aspect of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate toward the “unbeliever,” that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine, Hindus, atheists and others"[232][233] The Saudi religious studies curriculum is taught outside the Kingdom in madrasah throughout the world. Critics have described the education system as ‘medieval’ and that its primary goal ‘is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at war with other faiths and cultures’.[234]
The approach taken in the Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts.[235] To tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, the government is aiming to slowly modernise the education system through the ‘Tatweer’ reform program.[235] The Tatweer program is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally-based training.[231][236]
[edit] Culture
Saudi Arabia has centuries-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab tribal civilization. This culture has been bolstered by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of Islam, which arose in the eighteenth century and now predominates in the country. The many limitations on behaviour and dress are strictly enforced both legally and socially. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example, and there is no theatre or public exhibition of films. Nevertheless, as reported by the UK Mail, within the Saudi royal family homosexuality is permitted so long as it is not the subject of public attention (Daily Mail: "A gay Saudi prince has been jailed for beating and strangling his servant.").[237] However, the Daily Mail and Wikileaks indicate that the Saudi Royal family applies a different moral code to itself ("WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex. Royals flout puritanical laws to throw parties for young elite while religious police are forced to turn a blind eye.")[238] Public expression of opinion about domestic political or social matters is discouraged. There are no organizations such as political parties or labour unions to provide public forums.
Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims, the weekend begins on Thursday.[56][239] In accordance with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious holidays are publicly recognized, ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā. Celebration of other Islamic holidays, such as the Prophet’s birthday and ʿĀshūrāʾ (an important holiday for Shīʿites), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale. Public observance of non-Islamic religious holidays is prohibited, with the exception of 23 September, which commemorates the unification of the kingdom.[56]
[edit] Islamic heritage sites
Saudi Arabia, and specifically the Hejaz, as the cradle of Islam, has many of the most significant historic Muslim sites including the two holiest sites of Mecca and Medina.[240] One of the King's titles is Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, the two mosques being Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, which contains Islam's most sacred place, the Kaaba, and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina which contains Muhammad's tomb.[241][242]
However, Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to 'shirk' (that is, idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, the Hejaz cities have suffered from considerable destruction of their physical heritage and, for example, it has been estimated that about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished.[243] These include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first Caliph), Umar (the second Caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth Caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).[244] Other historic buildings that have been destroyed include the house of Khadijah, the wife of the Prophet, the house of Abu Bakr, now the site of the local Hilton hotel; the house of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of the Prophet, and the Mosque of abu-Qubais, now the location of the King's palace in Mecca.[245]
Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that over the last 50 years 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost.[246] It has been reported that there now are fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.[245]
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle length garmet woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of finer cotton, also held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. Women are required to wear an abaya or modest clothing when in public.
- Ghutrah (Arabic: غتره) is a traditional headdress typically worn by Arab men. It is made of a square of cloth ("scarf"), usually cotton, folded and wrapped in various styles around the head. It is commonly worn in areas with an arid climate, to provide protection from direct sun exposure, and also protection of the mouth and eyes from blown dust and sand.
- Agal (Arabic: عقال) is an Arab headdress constructed of cord which is fastened around the Ghutrah to hold it in place. The agal is usually black in colour.
- Thawb (Arabic: ثوب) is the standard Arabic word for garment. It is ankle length, usually with long sleeves similar to a robe.
- Bisht (Arabic: بشت) is a traditional Arabic men’s cloak usually only worn for prestige on special occasions such as weddings.
- Abaya (Arabic: عباية) is a women's garment. It is a black cloak which loosely covers the entire body except the head. Some women choose to cover their faces with a niqāb and some do not.
[edit] Entertainment, the arts, sport and cuisine
During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the Kingdom and were not considered un-Islamic, although they were seen as contrary to Arab tribal norms.[247] During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theaters. However, with King Abdullah's reforms from 2005, some cinemas have re-opened.[248]
From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent of oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). Of the native dances, the most popular is a martial line dance known as the ʿarḍah, which includes lines of men, frequently armed with swords or rifles, dancing to the beat of drums and tambourines. Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is still very popular.[56]
Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world – albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad and Rajaa al-Sanea.[249][250][251]
Football (soccer) is the national sport in Saudi Arabia.[citation needed]Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing and basketball are also popular, played by both men and women, with the Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the 1999 Asian Championship.[252][253][254] More traditional sports such as camel racing became more popular in the 1970s. A stadium in Riyadh holds races in the winter. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport’s most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry, another traditional pursuit, is still practiced.[56]
Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding Arab countries in the Persian Gulf, and has been heavily influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not consumed and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. A dish consisting of a stuffed lamb, known as khūzī, is the traditional national dish. Kebabs are popular, as is shāwarmā (shawarma), a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, machbūs (kabsa), a rice dish with fish or shrimp, is popular. Flat, unleavened bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates and fresh fruit. Coffee, served in the Turkish style, is the traditional beverage.[56]
[edit] See also
Articles related to Saudi Arabia
[edit] References
- ^ "About Saudi Arabia: Facts and figures". The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington D.C. http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/facts_and_figures/. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Saudi Arabia entry at The World Factbook
- ^ "Saudi Arabia the country in Brief". Saudia-online.com. http://www.saudia-online.com/saudi_arabia.htm. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ Central Department Of Statistics & information as updated 2010
- ^ a b c d "Saudi Arabia". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=40&pr.y=7&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=456&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
- ^ "HDRO (Human Development Report Office United Nations Development Programme". United Nations. 2011. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia". American Bedu. http://americanbedu.com/2009/06/06/the-expatriate-population-in-saudi-arabia/. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
- ^ Soldatkin, Vladimir; Nastassia Astrasheuskaya (9 November 2011). "Saudi Arabia to overtake Russia as top oil producer-IEA". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/09/russia-energy-iea-idUSL6E7M93XT20111109. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
- ^ "The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia – A Welfare State". Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, London. http://portal.mofa.gov.sa/Detail.asp?InSectionID=1516&InNewsItemID=1746. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ a b c d "Background Note: Saudi Arabia". U.S. State Dept. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard (2003). The Crisis of Islam. pp. xx–xxi (Introduction). ISBN 0-679-64281-1.
- ^ Wilson, Peter W.; Graham, Douglas (1994). Saudi Arabia: the coming storm. p. 46. ISBN 1-56324-394-6. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K_c9FOeeuewC&pg=PA46. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ a b Kamrava, Mehran (2011). The Modern Middle East: A Political History Since the First World War. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-520-26774-9. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkLHZCzMEJkC&pg=PA67. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ Wynbrandt,, James; Gerges, Fawaz A. (2010). A Brief History of Saudi Arabia. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-8160-7876-9.
- ^ Hariri-Rifai, Wahbi; Hariri-Rifai, Mokhless (1990). The heritage of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-9624483-0-0.
- ^ Gordon, Matthew (2005). The rise of Islam. p. 4. ISBN 0-313-32522-7.
- ^ Lindsay, James E. (2005). Daily life in the medieval Islamic world. p. 33. ISBN 0-313-32270-8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "History of Arabia". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
- ^ East, William Gordon (1971). The changing map of Asia. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-416-16850-1.
- ^ Bowen, Wayne H. (2007). The history of Saudi Arabia. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-313-34012-3.
- ^ Chatterji, Nikshoy C. (1973). Muddle of the Middle East, Volume 2. p. 168. ISBN 0-391-00304-6.
- ^ Bowen, Wayne H. (2007). The history of Saudi Arabia. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-313-34012-3.
- ^ Harris, Ian; Mews,Stuart; Morris, Paul; Shepherd, John (1992). Contemporary religions: a world guide. p. 369. ISBN 978-0-582-08695-1.
- ^ Faksh, Mahmud A. (1997). The future of Islam in the Middle East. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-275-95128-3.
- ^ "Reining in Riyadh" by D. Gold, Apr 6, 2003, NYpost (JCPA)
- ^ "The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam". Library of Congress Country Studies.
- ^ Murphy, David (2008). The Arab Revolt 1916–18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze. pp. 5–8. ISBN 978-1-84603-339-1.
- ^ Al Rasheed, Madawi (1997). Politics in an Arabian oasis: the Rashidis of Saudi Arabia. p. 81. ISBN 1-86064-193-8.
- ^ Anderson, Ewan W.; Fisher, William Bayne (2000). The Middle East: geography and geopolitics. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-415-07667-8.
- ^ Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (205). The Encyclopedia of World War I. p. 565. ISBN 978-1-85109-420-2.
- ^ Hourani, Albert (2005). A History of the Arab Peoples. pp. 315–319. ISBN 978-0-571-22664-1.
- ^ Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1994). Islam in revolution: fundamentalism in the Arab world. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-8156-2635-0.
- ^ Wynbrandt, James; Gerges, Fawaz A. (2010). A Brief History of Saudi Arabia. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-8160-7876-9.
- ^ Lacey, Robert (2009). Inside the Kingdom. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-09-953905-6.
- ^ El Ghonemy, Mohamad Riad (1998). Affluence and poverty in the Middle East. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-415-10033-5.
- ^ a b Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
- ^ Rabasa, Angel; Benard, Cheryl; Chalk, Peter; and Fair; Christine (2005). The Muslim world after 9/11. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8330-3712-1.
- ^ Jones, Toby Craig (2010). Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia. pp. 218–219. ISBN 978-0-674-04985-7.
- ^ a b c Hegghammer, Thomas (2010). Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism Since 1979. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-521-73236-9.
- ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (2003). Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-275-98091-7.
- ^ Viola, Joy Winkie (1986). Human resources development in Saudi Arabia: Multinationals and Saudization. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-88746-070-8.
- ^ Robert Fisk, 'The Great War For Civilisation' (2005), p.23.
- ^ Abir, Mordechai (1993). Saudi Arabia: government, society, and the Persian Gulf crisis. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-415-09325-5.
- ^ Blanchard, Christopher (2009). Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations. United States Congressional Research Service. pp. 5–6.
- ^ Hegghammer, Thomas (2010). Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism Since 1979. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-521-73236-9.
- ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
- ^ Kepel, Gilles (2004). The war for Muslim minds: Islam and the West. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-674-01575-3.
- ^ a b Cordesman, Anthony H. (2009). Saudi Arabia: national security in a troubled region. pp. 50–52. ISBN 978-0-313-38076-1.
- ^ a b Black, Ian (31 January 2011). "Egypt Protests could spread to other countries". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/31/egypt-protests-spread-other-countries. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (5 May 2011). "Saudis mobilise thousands of troops to quell growing revolt". The Independent (London). Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudis-mobilise-thousands-of-troops-to-quell-growing-revolt-2232928.html. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
- ^ "Saudi king announces new benefits". Al Jazeera English. 23 February 2011. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223105328424268.html. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
- ^ a b c d Cavendish, Marshall (2007). World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2.
- ^ Robbers, Gerhard (2007). Encyclopedia of world constitutions, Volume 1. p. 791. ISBN 0-8160-6078-9.
- ^ The Economist Intelligence Unit. "The Economist Democracy Index 2010". The Economist. http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia gives women right to vote". The Guardian (London). 25 September 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/sep/25/saudi-arabia-women-vote-elections.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525348/Saudi-Arabia. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ a b c Campbell, Christian (2007). Legal Aspects of Doing Business in the Middle East. p. 265. ISBN 978-1-4303-1914-6. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=20jmw1C3H5UC&pg=PA265&dq=%22regulations+are+issued+by+royal+decree%22&hl=en&ei=Ho7uTfHUGoe08QOE0PSzBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22regulations%20are%20issued%20by%20royal%20decree%22&f=false. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
- ^ Library of Congress, Federal Research Division (2006). "Country Profile: Saudi Arabia". http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
- ^ a b "The House of Saud: rulers of modern Saudi Arabia". Financial Times. 30 September 2010. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/75aae7ea-cc82-11df-a6c7-00144feab49a.html#axzz1Pon8gQJX. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
- ^ Bowen, Wayne H. (2007). The history of Saudi Arabia. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-313-34012-3.
- ^ "Saudi King Abdullah to go to US for medical treatment". BBC News. 21 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11807255. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
- ^ "Biographies of Ministers". Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington, DC. http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/Biographies-of-Ministers.aspx. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
- ^ "Prince Salman resumes duties at governorate". Arab News. 23 November 2010. http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article199149.ece. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
- ^ Owen, Roger (2000). State, power and politics in the making of the modern Middle East. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-415-19674-1.
- ^ Reed, Jennifer Bond; Brenda, Lange (2006). Saudi Royal Family. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7910-9218-7. ; Cordesman, Anthony H. (2003). Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century. pp. 47,142. ISBN 978-0-275-98091-7. ; Alianak, Sonia (2007). Middle Eastern leaders and Islam: a precarious equilibrium. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-8204-6924-9. ; Bowen, Wayne H. (2007). The history of Saudi Arabia. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-313-34012-3. ; "The corrupt, feudal world of the House of Saud". The Independent (London). 14 May 2003. http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-corrupt-feudal-world-of-the-house-of-saud-538468.html. Retrieved 21 June 2011. ; from the 1990’s: Abir, Mordechai (1993). Saudi Arabia: government, society, and the Persian Gulf crisis. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-415-09325-5. ; Davis, M. Jane (1996). Security issues in the post-cold war world. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-85898-334-9. ; from the 1980s: Holden, William (1982). Saudi Arabia and its royal family. pp. 154–156. ISBN 0-8184-0326-8. ; Curtis, Michael (1986). The Middle East reader. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-88738-101-0.
- ^ Burbach, Roger; Clarke, Ben (2002). September 11 and the U.S. war: beyond the curtain of smoke. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-87286-404-7.
- ^ Freedom House (2005). Freedom in the Middle East and North Africa: A Freedom in the World Special Edition. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7425-3775-0.
- ^ Bergman, Lowell (9 October 2001). "A Nation Challenged: The Plots; Saudi Arabia Also a Target Of Attacks, U.S. Officials Say". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/nation-challenged-plots-saudi-arabia-also-target-attacks-us-officials-say.html. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Ottaway, David (2008). The King's Messenger. Prince Bandar Bin Sultan and America's Tangled Relationship with Saudi Arabia. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-8027-1690-3.
- ^ Robertson, David (7 June 2007). "Saudi bribe claims delay £20bn fighter deal". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article1899614.ece. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Interview: Bandar Bin Sultan". PBS. 2001. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terrorism/interviews/bandar.html. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
- ^ Cordesman, Anthony H.; Corobaid; Nawaf (2005). National Security in Saudi Arabia: Threats, Responses, and Challenges. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-275-98811-1.
- ^ Leigh, David; Evans, Rob (7 June 2007). "BAE accused of secretly paying £1bn to Saudi prince". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/jun/07/bae1. Retrieved 21 June 2011. ; Herman, Michael (20 September 2007). "BAE Systems sued over alleged Saudi bribes". The Times (London). http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/law/article2498504.ece. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Jordan, Dearbail; Buckley, Christine (11 June 2007). "Prince Bandar denies BAE bribery claims". The Times (London). http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/engineering/article1914426.ece. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- ^ "Lord Goldsmith defends BAE Systems plea deal". BBC News. 6 February 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8501916.stm. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Corruption Perceptions Index 2010". Transparency International. 15 December 2010. http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ a b Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. pp. 180, 242–243, 248, 257–258. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
- ^ "Saudi king speeds reforms". The Financial Times. 15 February 2009. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/31b61bc4-fb3a-11dd-bcad-000077b07658.html#axzz1Q0pylGRj. Retrieved 22 June 2011. ; "Prince Naif appointed deputy Saudi PM". The Financial Times. 27 March 2009. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/2c0d7fcc-1b1b-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html#axzz1Q0pylGRj. Retrieved 22 June 2011.
- ^ "Reform in Saudi Arabia: At a snail's pace". The Economist. 30 September 2010. http://www.economist.com/node/17149062?story_id=17149062&fsrc=rss. Retrieved 22 June 2011.
- ^ a b Kostiner, Joseph (2009). Conflict and cooperation in the Persian Gulf region. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-531-16205-8.
- ^ Goldstein, Natalie; Brown-Foster; Walton (2010). Religion and the State. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-8160-8090-8.
- ^ Federal Research Division (2004). Saudi Arabia A Country Study. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-4191-4621-3.
- ^ a b Nawaf E. Obaid (Sept. 1999). "The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders". Middle East Quarterly VI (3): 51–58. http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
- ^ Farsy, Fouad (1992). Modernity and tradition: the Saudi equation. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-874132-03-5.
- ^ a b c Hassner, Ron Eduard (2009). War on sacred grounds. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-8014-4806-5.
- ^ Ottaway, David (2008). The King's Messenger. Prince Bandar Bin Sultan and America's Tangled Relationship with Saudi Arabia. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-8027-1690-3.
- ^ Abir, Mordechai (1987). Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites : conflict and collaboration. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-7099-5129-2.
- ^ a b Abir, Mordechai (1993). Saudi Arabia: government, society, and the Persian Gulf crisis. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-415-09325-5.
- ^ Bakri, Nada (29 November 2010). "Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia". The New York Times. http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
- ^ Abir, Mordechai (1987). Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites : conflict and collaboration. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7099-5129-2.
- ^ Wilson, Peter W.; Graham, Douglas (1994). Saudi Arabia: the coming storm. p. 16. ISBN 1-56324-394-6.
- ^ Long, David E. (2005). Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-313-32021-7.
- ^ a b International Business Publications (2011). Saudi Arabia King Fahd Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saud Handbook. ISBN 0-7397-2740-0.
- ^ Nyrop, Richard F. (2008). Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4344-6210-7.
- ^ Bligh, Alexander (1985). "The Saudi religious elite (Ulama) as participant in the political system of the kingdom.". International Journal of Middle East Studies 17: 37–50.
- ^ Mattar, Philip (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East & North Africa: Vol.1 A-C. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-02-865770-7.
- ^ a b Noreng, Oystein (2005). Crude power: politics and the oil market. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-84511-023-9.
- ^ a b "When kings and princes grow old". The Economist. 15 July 2010. http://www.economist.com/node/16588422. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
- ^ David, Steven R. (2008). Catastrophic consequences: civil wars and American interests. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-8018-8989-9.
- ^ Long, David E. (2005). Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-313-32021-7.
- ^ Cavendish, Marshall (2007). World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2.
- ^ Barenek, Ondrej (2009). "Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia". Middle East Brief (Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies) (33). http://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
- ^ "Flood sparks rare action". Montreal Gazette. 29 January 2011. http://www.montrealgazette.com/news/Flood+sparks+rare+action/4189873/story.html. Retrieved 29 January 2011. [dead link]
- ^ "Dozens detained in Saudi over flood protests". The Peninsula (Qatar)/Thomson-Reuters. 29 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/140720-dozens-detained-in-saudi-over-flood-protests.html. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Bowen, Wayne H. (2007). The history of Saudi Arabia. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-313-34012-3.
- ^ Hefner, Robert W. (2011). Shari'a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-253-22310-4.
- ^ Campo, Juan Eduardo (2006). Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
- ^ a b Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
- ^ Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. p. 157. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
- ^ Esposito, John L. (1998). Islam and politics. pp. 110–112. ISBN 978-0-8156-2774-6.
- ^ Campbell, Christian (2007). Legal Aspects of Doing Business in the Middle East. pp. 268–269. ISBN 978-1-4303-1914-6.
- ^ a b "Tentative steps in Saudi Arabia: The king of Saudi Arabia shows some reformist credentials". The Economist. 17 February 2009. http://www.economist.com/node/13134598. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- ^ "Support for shake-up of Saudi justice system". The Financial Times. 4 October 2007. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ec3ad182-72a2-11dc-b7ff-0000779fd2ac.html#axzz1RgyCPauT. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
- ^ a b "Saudi Arabian justice: Cruel, or just unusual?". The Economist. 14 June 2001. http://www.economist.com/node/656147. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
- ^ "Analysis: Saudi rough justice". BBC News. 28 March 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/693680.stm. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
- ^ Shoult, Anthony (2006). Doing business with Saudi Arabia. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-905050-06-2.
- ^ Human Rights Watch (2008). Precarious Justice. pp. 3, 4, 101, 102, 108–115. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xwGojEygbqAC&pg=PA3&dq=%22Saudi+Arabia%22+%22precarious+justice%22&hl=en&ei=6xYcTvm2N5HGtAaEzO34Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=jury&f=false. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
- ^ "Saudi Justice?". CBS News. 5 December 2007. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/05/06/60minutes/main615986.shtml. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
- ^ a b Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. p. 175. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
- ^ a b c Federal Research Division (2004). Saudi Arabia A Country Study. p. 304. ISBN 978-1-4191-4621-3.
- ^ "Saudi executioner tells all". BBC News. 5 June 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2966790.stm. Retrieved 11 July 2011. ; Miethe, Terance D.; Lu, Hong (2004). Punishment: a comparative historical perspective. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-521-60516-8.
- ^ Oliver Pickup (31 October 2011). "Sudanese man beheaded in car park". Daily Mail. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2055636/Sudanese-man-beheaded-Saudi-Arabia-car-park-sorcerer.html. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ Miethe, Terance D.; Lu, Hong (2004). Punishment: a comparative historical perspective. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-521-60516-8. ; "2010 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia". U.S. State Department. 8 April 2011. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154472.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2011. ; "2009 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia". U.S. State Department. 11 March 2010. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/nea/136079.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2011. ; "2008 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia". U.S. State Department. 25 February 2009. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/nea/119126.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2011. ; "2007 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia". U.S. State Department. 11 March 2008. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100605.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ "Report: Saudi girl accepts lashing for assaulting headmistress". CNN. 24 January 2010. http://articles.cnn.com/2010-01-24/world/saudi.arabia.lashes_1_lashes-al-watan-saudi-city?_s=PM:WORLD. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ "Saudis Face Soaring Blood-Money Sums". The Washington Post. 27 July 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/26/AR2008072601785.html. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. pp. 250–252. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
- ^ Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. pp. 168, 172. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
- ^ "United Nations Member States". United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml#s.
- ^ "The foreign policy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Saudi Arabia. 5 July 2005. http://www.mofa.gov.sa/SITES/MOFAEN/ABOUTKINGDOM/KINGDOMFOREIGNPOLICY/Pages/KingdomPolicy34645.aspx. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ "No politics for Ben Ali in Kingdom". Arab News. 19 January 2011. http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article238363.ece. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ "Arab leaders issue resolutions, emphasize Gaza reconstruction efforts". Kuwait News Agency. 20 January 2009. http://www.kuna.net.kw/NewsAgenciesPublicSite/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=1969914&Language=en. Retrieved 10 August 2010.
- ^ David, J Jonsson (2006). Islamic Economics and the Final Jihad. pp. 249–250. ISBN 978-1-59781-980-0.
- ^ David, J Jonsson (2006). Islamic Economics and the Final Jihad. p. 250. ISBN 978-1-59781-980-0.
- ^ "Jihad and the Saudi petrodollar". BBC News. 15 November 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7093423.stm. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ Malbouisson, Cofie D. (2007). Focus on Islamic issues. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-60021-204-8.
- ^ a b "Fueling Terror". Institute for the Analysis of Global Terror. http://www.iags.org/fuelingterror.html. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ Malbouisson, Cofie D. (2007). Focus on Islamic issues. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-60021-204-8.
- ^ Ménoret, Pascal (2005). The Saudi enigma: a history. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-84277-605-6.
- ^ Walker, Peter (22 November 2007). "Iraq's foreign militants 'come from US allies'". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/nov/22/iraq.peterwalker1. Retrieved 30 July2011.
- ^ Burnell, Peter J.; Randall, Vicky (2007). Politics in the developing world. p. 449. ISBN 978-0-19-929608-8.
- ^ Wiktorowicz, Quintan (2004). Islamic activism: a social movement theory approach. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-253-34281-2.
- ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
- ^ Kaim, Markus (2008). Great powers and regional orders: the United States and the Persian Gulf. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7546-7197-8.
- ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. pp. 178, 222. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
- ^ Declan Walsh (5 December 2010). "WikiLeaks cables portray Saudi Arabia as a cash machine for terrorists". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
- ^ Bakri, Nada (29 November 2010). "Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia". The New York Times. http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
- ^ Black, Ian; Tisdall, Simon (28 November 2010). "Saudi Arabia urges US attack on Iran to stop nuclear programme". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/28/us-embassy-cables-saudis-iran. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
- ^ Watson, Mark (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-470-18257-4.
- ^ a b c "Country Profile: Saudi Arabia, Sept. 2006 Library of Congress" (PDF). http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ John Pike (27 April 2005). "Saudi Arabian National Guard". Globalsecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/gulf/sang.htm. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ SAUDI ARABIA[dead link]
- ^ "Arms for the King and His Family". Jcpa.org. http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=1&DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=376&PID=0&IID=5177&TTL=Arms_for_the_King_and_His_Family:_The_U.S._Arms_Sale_to_Saudi_Arabia. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ Gardner, Charles (1981). British Aircraft Corporation. A history by Charles Gardner. B.T. Batsford Ltd. pp. 224–249. ISBN 0-7134-3815-0.
- ^ O’Connell, Dominic (20 August 2006). "BAE cashes in on £40bn Arab jet deal". The Sunday Times (London: News International). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2095-2320097,00.html. Retrieved 22 August 2006.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia". http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/05/23/uk-saudi-britain-defence-idUKBRE84M0JN20120523. Retrieved 2012-05-23.
- ^ "Terrestrial Ecoregions – Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands (PA1303)". Worldwildlife.org. http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/pa/pa1303_full.html. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ a b Stokes, Jamie (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1. p. 605. ISBN 978-0-8160-7158-6.
- ^ "CIA World Factbook – Rank Order: Area". The World Factbook. 26 January 2012. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia". Weather Online. http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/climate/Saudi-Arabia.htm. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia: Administrative divisions". arab.net. http://www.arab.net/saudi/sa_admindivisions.htm. Retrieved 21 September 2008
- ^ "World Proved Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimates". Eia.doe.gov. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ Country Profile Study on Poverty: Saudi Arabia (archived from the original[dead link] on 26 February 2008)
- ^ "CPI Inflation Calculator". Data.bls.gov. http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ "Crude Oil Reserves". http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/crudeoilreserves.xls. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ Simmons, Matthew (2005) [10 June 2005]. Twilight in the Desert: The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-73876-3.
- ^ Six New Economic cities in Saudi Arabia[dead link]
- ^ Construction boom of Saudi Arabia and the UAE[dead link]
- ^ "Riyadh's Urban area will contribute $ 167 B and Jeddah's will contribute $ 111 Billion". Citymayors.com. 11 March 2007. http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/richest-cities-2020.html. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision
- ^ "Saudi Arabia". (PDF) The Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs.
- ^ "Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey". Willem Adriaan Veenhoven, Winifred Crum Ewing, Stichting Plurale Samenlevingen (1976). p.452. ISBN 90-247-1779-5
- ^ "Religion & Ethics – Islam and slavery: Abolition". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_8.shtml. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History". Britannica.com. 31 January 1910. http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ Ethnologue: Saudi Arabia Retrieved 24 January 2011
- ^ جريدة الرياض. "جريدة الرياض : سكان المملكة 27 مليوناً بينهم 8 ملايين مقيم". Alriyadh.com. http://www.alriyadh.com/2010/08/05/article549461.html. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ "Arab versus Asian migrant workers in the GCC countries" (PDF). p. 10. http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/EGM_Ittmig_Arab/P02_Kapiszewski.pdf. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ "Yemen's point of no return". Guardian.co.uk. 1 April 2009.
- ^ "Expatriates Can Apply for Saudi Citizenship in Two-to-Three Months". Arabnews.com. 14 February 2005. http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1§ion=0&article=58980&d=14&m=2&y=2005. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ "1954 Saudi Arabian Citizenship System". http://www.moi.gov.sa/wps/wcm/connect/121c03004d4bb7c98e2cdfbed7ca8368/EN_saudi_nationality_system.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=121c03004d4bb7c98e2cdfbed7ca8368. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ "3 million expats to be sent out gradually". Arab News. 21 October 2011.
- ^ ‘Saudi unemployment at 10%’[dead link] Bloomberg, 26 January 2011, retrieved 6 February 2011
- ^ ‘Saudi Public Opinion: A rare look’ 27 January 2010, Pechter Polls, retrieved 6 February 2011
- ^ ‘Saudi Arabia by numbers’ 12 February 2010, Pechter Polls, retrieved 6 February 2011
- ^ 'Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism since 1979' by Thomas Hegghammer, 2010, Cambridge Middle East Studies ISBN 978-0-521-73236-9
- ^ a b ‘Saudi Arabia, a kingdom divided’ The Nation, 22 May 2006, retrieved 6 February 2011,
- ^ “Saudis confront gap between expectation and reality”, Financial Times, 21 February 2011, Retrieved 21 February 2011
- ^ Spillius, Alex (5 December 2010). "Wikileaks: Saudis 'chief funders of al-Qaeda'". London: Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8182847/Wikileaks-Saudis-chief-funders-of-al-Qaeda.html. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ Khalaf al-Harbi (9 July 2010). "Child abuse: We and the Americans". Arab News. http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article81402.ece. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
- ^ Abdul Rahman Shaheen (24 December 2008). "Report alleges rise in child abuse in Saudi Arabia". Persian Gulf News. http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/report-alleges-rise-in-child-abuse-in-saudi-arabia-1.150333. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
- ^ Zawawi, Suzan (24 January 2006). "Abuse of Female Domestic Workers Biggest Problem". The Saudi Gazette. http://www.mafhoum.com/press9/265S28.htm. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
- ^ Evidence of Inbreeding Depression: Saudi Arabia Washington Post Foreign Service Sunday, 16 January 2000; Page A01
- ^ Saudi Arabia Awakes to the Perils of Inbreeding New York Times, 1 May 2003
- ^ Roy Gutman (4 December 2011). "Saudi dissidents turn to YouTube to air their frustrations". The Kansas City Star. http://www.kansascity.com/2011/12/04/3301226/saudi-dissidents-turn-to-youtube.html#storylink=rss#storylink=cpy.
- ^ Roy Gutman, McClatchy Newspapers. "Saudi dissidents turn to YouTube to air their frustrations | McClatchy". Mcclatchydc.com. http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2011/12/04/v-print/132112/saudi-dissidents-turn-to-youtube.html. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ "Poverty Hides Amid Saudi Arabia's Oil Wealth". NPR. http://www.npr.org/2011/05/19/136439885/poverty-hides-amid-saudi-arabias-oil-wealth. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ "Poverty exists in Saudi Arabia too | The Observers". Observers.france24.com. 28 October 2008. http://observers.france24.com/content/20081028-poverty-exists-saudi-arabia. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ "Mal3ob 3alena : Poverty in Saudi Arabia English Version". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlSBqgW5xx0. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ Hill, Amelia (23 October 2011). "Saudi film-makers enter second week of detention". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/oct/23/feras-boqna-saudi-arabia-poverty.
- ^ by Zak. "A foreign Saudi plot to expose foreign poverty in foreign Saudi « Lebanon Spring". Lebanonspring.com. http://lebanonspring.com/2011/10/19/plot-to-show-foreign-poverty-in-foreign-saudi-arabia-arab-spring-youtube-video/. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ a b Mapping the World Muslim Population (October 2009), Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. p. 16 (p. 17 of the PDF).
- ^ Some historians incists that Saudi hatred to Shia Islam started when Caffer-Sadi'q banned Shias to travel for Hadj to Maekka and Madina. In this case Saudi is losing millions and maybe billions of dollars each years because of cancellation of every Shia Haj. Another reason is that Shias believe that Saudis are not even muslim. Because Gadr-Khum, which situates in eastern Saudi, is where the pr. Mohammed decleared Imam Ali as the leader after himself. Saudi bans Shias to travel to that city, also Saudi people are banned to enter to Karbala and Najaf. Pew Forum. p. 10.
- ^ The Daily Star Lamine Chikhi. 27 11 2010.
- ^ 'The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya', US Congressional Research Service Report, 2008, by Christopher M. Blanchard available from the Federation of American Scientists website.
- ^ Q&A with Stephen Schwartz on Wahhabism on National Review Online
- ^ a b c d "Saudi Arabia: International Religious Freedom Report 2010". U.S. State Department. 17 November 2010. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148843.htm. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Owen, Richard (17 March 2008). "Saudi Arabia extends hand of friendship to Pope". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article3571835.ece. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
- ^ Human Rights Watch (2009). Denied dignity: systematic discrimination and hostility toward Saudi Shia citizens. p. 1. ISBN 1-56432-535-0.
- ^ Human Rights Watch (2009). Denied dignity: systematic discrimination and hostility toward Saudi Shia citizens. pp. 2, 8–10. ISBN 1-56432-535-0.
- ^ a b c d e f g "2010 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia". U.S. State Department. 8 April 2011. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154472.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ World Economic Forum (2010). The Global Gender Gap Report 2010. p. 9. ISBN 978-92-95044-89-0. http://www.weforum.org/pdf/gendergap/report2010.pdf. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
- ^ a b Human Rights Watch (2008). Perpetual Minors: human rights abuses from male guardianship and sex segregation in Saudi Arabia. p. 2. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nFv4d6LdyFEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=saudi+%22perpetual+minors%22&hl=en&ei=rGUwTqufHIGh8QPF3Z21AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
- ^ Human Rights Watch (2008). Perpetual Minors: human rights abuses from male guardianship and sex segregation in Saudi Arabia. p. 3. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nFv4d6LdyFEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=saudi+%22perpetual+minors%22&hl=en&ei=rGUwTqufHIGh8QPF3Z21AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
- ^ Long, David E. (2005). Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-313-32021-7.
- ^ Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. p. 164. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
- ^ a b Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. p. 163. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
- ^ a b c Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. p. 165. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
- ^ Dammer,, Harry R.; Albanese, Jay S. (2010). Comparative Criminal Justice Systems. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-495-80989-0.
- ^ Alsharif, Asma (24 May 2011). "Saudi should free woman driver-rights group". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/24/saudi-driving-idUSLDE74N0ET20110524. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
- ^ 'Top Saudi cleric: OK for young girls to wed' CNN, 17 January 2009; Retrieved 18 January 2011
- ^ 'Saudi Human Rights Commission Tackles Child Marriages' Asharq Alawsat, 13 January 2009 (archived from the original on 1 May 2011)
- ^ Mesbah, Rana. "Women's education in Saudi Arabia: the way forward" Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ^ "Saudi Writer and Journalist Wajeha Al-Huwaider Fights for Women's Rights". MEMRI. http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=ia&ID=IA31206.
- ^ "New Rights, and Challenges, for Saudi Women". Time. 19 October 2009. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1929152-1,00.html.
- ^ Zoepf, Katherine (31 May 2010). "Talk of Women's Rights Divides Saudi Arabia". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/world/middleeast/01iht-saudi.html?pagewanted=1&src=me. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
- ^ Saleh Ambah, Faiza. "Saudi Women Rise in Defense of the Veil". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/31/AR2006053101994_pf.html. Retrieved 23 June 2010
- ^ "Saudi women rise up after years of absence". Alarabiya.net. 21 November 2009. http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2009/11/21/91996.html. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ "Saudi Doctor Named Visiting Professor at Johns Hopkins University". Archive.arabnews.com. 11 January 2004. http://archive.arabnews.com/?page=1§ion=0&article=37847&d=11&m=1&y=2004. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ Women in Saudi Arabia to vote and run in elections BBC News
- ^ "CAMERA Snapshots: Media in the Service of King Abdullah". Blog.camera.org. 9 October 2011. http://blog.camera.org/archives/2011/10/media_in_the_service_of_king_abdullah.html. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ Education in Saudi Arabia World Education News and Reviews Retrieved 16 January 2011
- ^ a b ‘Saudi Arabia's Education Reforms Emphasize Training for Jobs’ The Chronicle of Higher Education, 3 October 2010; Retrieved 16 January 2011
- ^ Shea, Nona, et al. (2006). Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerence. Center for Religious Freedom, Freedom House. http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/special_report/48.pdf. Retrieved 21 September 2008
- ^ Press Release: Revised Saudi Government Textbooks Still Demonize Christians, Jews, Non-Wahhabi Muslims and. Freedom House. 23 May 2006. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=70&release=379. Retrieved 21 September 2008
- ^ ‘This medieval Saudi education system must be reformed’, The Guardian, 26 November 2010, Retrieved 16 January 2011
- ^ a b Reforming Saudi Education Slate 7 September. 2009; Retrieved 16 January 2011
- ^ The Saudi Gazette Retrieved 16 January 2011
- ^ Gay Saudi prince pictured happily with the manservant he beat to death | Mail Online. Dailymail.co.uk (20 October 2010). Retrieved on 9 May 2012.
- ^ WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex | World news. The Guardian (7 December 2010). Retrieved on 9 May 2012.
- ^ Sulaiman, Tosin. Bahrain changes the weekend in efficiency drive, The Times, 2 August 2006. Retrieved 25 June 2008. Turkey has a weekend on Saturday and Sunday
- ^ Arabia: the Cradle of Islam, 1900, S.M.Zwemmer
- ^ Saudi Embassy (US) website – Islam Retrieved 20 January 2011
- ^ Saudi Embassy (US) website – Guardian of the Holy Places Retrieved 20 January 2011
- ^ 'The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage', The Independent, 6 August 2005, Retrieved 17 January 2011
- ^ Destruction of Islamic Architectural Heritage in Saudi Arabia: A Wake-up Call, The American Muslim, Retrieved 17 January 2011
- ^ a b ‘Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca’, The Independent, 19 April 2006
- ^ ‘Islamic heritage lost as Makkah modernises’ Center for Islamic Pluralism
- ^ World Focus 5 January 2009
- ^ "Babylon & Beyond". Los Angeles Times. 23 December 2008. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2008/12/saudi-arabia--1.html.
- ^ Mostyn, Trevor (24 August 2010). "Ghazi al-Gosaibi obituary". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/aug/24/ghazi-algosaibi-obituary. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Triumphant Trilogy", by Malu Halasa, Time Magazine, 17 January 2005
- ^ "Sex and the Saudi Girl" feature in The Times 8 July 2007
- ^ "Saudi Arabian Slam Dunk, Fall 1997,Winter 1998, Volume 14, Number 4, Saudi Arabia". Saudiembassy.net. http://www.saudiembassy.net/files/PDF/Publications/Magazine/1998-Winter/slamdunk.htm. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ Al, Joud. "Saudi women show greater interest in sports and games". Arab News. http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article463435.ece. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- ^ Todor Krastev (21 September 2011). "Men Basketball Asia Championship 1999 Fukuoka (JPN)- 28.08–05.09 Winner China". Todor66.com. http://todor66.com/basketball/Asia/Men_1999.html. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
[edit] Further reading
- Al Farsy, Fouad (2004) Modernity and Tradition: The Saudi Equation: Panarc International Ltd: ISBN 0-9548740-1-3
- Gardner, Andrew (2004) The Political Ecology of Bedouin Pastoralism in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In Political Ecology Across Spaces, Scales, and Social Groups, Lisa Gezon and Susan Paulson, eds. Rutgers: Rutgers University Press.
- Jones, John Paul. If Olaya Street Could Talk: Saudi Arabia- The Heartland of Oil and Islam. The Taza Press (2007). ISBN 0-9790436-0-3
- Lippman, Thomas W. "Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia" (Westview 2004) ISBN 0-8133-4052-7
- Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) ISBN 0-395-41165-3
- Matthew R. Simmons, Twilight in the Desert The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy, John Wiley & Sons, 2005, ISBN 0-471-73876-X
- Ménoret, Pascal, The Saudi Enigma: A History (Zed Books, 2005) ISBN 1-84277-605-3
- al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 0-521-64335-X
- Robert Lacey, THE KINGDOM: Arabia & The House of Sa'ud, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc, 1981 (Hard Cover) and Avon Books, 1981 (Soft Cover). Library of Congress: 81-83741 ISBN 0-380-61762-5
- Roger Owen, State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, 3rd Edition (Routledge, 2006) ISBN 0-415-29713-3
- T R McHale, A Prospect of Saudi Arabia, International Affairs Vol. 56 No 4 Autumn 1980 pp622–647
- Turchin, P. 2007. Scientific Prediction in Historical Sociology: Ibn Khaldun meets Al Saud. History & Mathematics: Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies. Moscow: KomKniga, 2007. ISBN 5-484-01002-0
- Carmen Bin Laden, Inside the Kingdom: My Life in Saudi Arabia, Grand Central Publishing, 2005, SBN 0446694886
- Robert Lacey, Inside the Kingdom, Hutchinson, 2009.
- Weston, Mark, "Prophets and Princes," Wiley, 2008.
- Haghshenas, Seyyed Ali, Saudi Arabia social and political structure and religious minorities.Iran, Tehran, Ettelaat newspaper, June 2010.
[edit] External links
Don't worry, we won't post anything.
0
21
